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selection within four weeks. This choice is approved by the bishop, and concurred in by the superintendent, or a new choice is made. Where school patronage does not exist, the superintendent selects the candidate, paying due regard to the opinion of the pastor and wish of the community. In schools attached to religious orders, the teacher is appointed by the head of the order, or is nominated to the provincial authorities by the bishop. Under teachers are appointed by the superintendent, with the approval of the bishop and the district magistrate. The right of presentation to Protestant and Jewish schools belongs to the religious societies, their choice being confirmed by the provincial authorities.

The selection of a candidate for the principalship of a parochial high school is made by the bishop and confirmed by the provincial authorities; the remaining teachers are selected by the district superintendent and confirmed by the bishop. For the high schools the call for candidates is issued by the provincial authorities, who can dissent from the choice of the patron only for well grounded reasons, and in case of disagreement, right of appeal exists to the State Department. Failing the right of presentation, election is made by the provincial authorities with the approval of the bishop. These teachers serve three years upon probation before their permanent engagement. In the parochial high schools of Vienna a like probation of two years is required. Applicants for positions in the normal high schools must have demonstrated their fitness by previous service at other high schools, which service is allowed in determining their seniority and corresponding grade of salary. The director is appointed by the State Department, on nomination of the provincial authorities approved by the bishop. Catechists are appointed by the bishop and provincial authorities, after subjecting the candidates to a suitable examination.

10. Teachers' Salaries. It is the duty of the community to secure to the teacher of the trivial school a sufficient salary. Where the established tuition fees, the income from endowments, and the privilege of residence in the school building does not suffice, the deficiency is made good by the grant or use of land, or a money payment is made, to be collected like other taxes. Where contributions in money or in kind are still obligatory upon individuals, the community regulates the amount, quality, and times of payment-or where these and similar modes of payment have been abolished, commutation of the payments in kind has been made at two-thirds of their average value during the preceding ten years, the deficit being made good by the community. Under-teachers, besides lodging and decent subsistence in the family of the teacher, receive also a salary proportionate to the revenues of the school. Those engaged in the instruction of branch schools receive a suitable compensation from the neighborhoods where the schools are situated. Temporary supplies made necessary by a teacher's sickness or other cause, are paid from his salary so far as it can be done, and otherwise by the community. When the incapacity of the teacher from old age or sickness makes a permanent

substitute necessary, his salary is paid by the community, assisted if need be by the school fund.

The offices of trivial teacher and church chorister are every where united, except in the larger towns, but the teacher can never be required to assist in the choir services without compensation nor to the detriment of his school duties, and the office of chorister is to be always considered as subordinate to that of the teacher. The duties of sexton and bellringer may be declined by the teacher for sufficient reason.

An authenticated statement is required to be made of all the important items of the teacher's income, from whatever source derived, in accordance with a detailed form, and of all the necessary expenses to be paid therefrom, as for under-teachers, bellows-blowers, cleaning of school-room and church, taxes, &c. This statement becomes a permanent authoritative document, upon which, in case of arrearages, execution may be based by the civil authorities. Care is taken that the income of the teacher, once ascertained, shall remain intact; dues which were once paid him for services not now legally required, as for the ringing the church bells in tempests, and the offering of incense, are still to be paid him, and assessments upon the property of cathedrals and convents, if once fixed and regularly made, are still to be paid though the religious body may have become defunct. Payments in kind can not be arbitrarily commuted below their true value, nor can the teacher even resign a claim to the injury of the school income or of a future teacher, nor upon his own judgment accept of an offer from the community respecting the amount of his future salary. Agreements in which a teacher yields any of his strict rights, out of regard to the community, can be but temporary and with a reservation of the rights of his successor. School buildings are free from tax, but the incomes of teachers in places of over 4,000 inhabitants, or if exceeding 630 fl., are subject to the same taxes as other incomes and occupations.

The minimum salary is fixed at 210-315 fl., (for under-teachers, at half this amount,) and any deficiency in this sum is to be made good by the community, assisted, if necessary, from the school fund. This minimum is not conclusive, but the average expenses of living in any place are to be considered in determining the sufficiency of a salary. Other occupations are allowed so far as they do not interfere with the proper duties of the school-and especially that of giving additional hours of instruction to their scholars, not excluding those of poor parents, the fees for which are divided by agreement between the teacher and underteachers. In the Protestant schools of Vienna this after-instruction is done away with. In the country the business of a community clerk, from the amount of writing to be done, very often necessarily devolves upon the teacher. Under-teachers may also engage in private instruction in the studies of the school, in singing, drawing, instrumental music, &c. While also the engagement of teachers in different branches of agriculture, in the culture of silk, (in Styria especially,) and in the care

of bees, (in all the German and Slavonian provinces,) is desired and encouraged,* occupation in any trade is as strictly forbidden, and even the carrying on of a private school can be done only with the consent of the State Department.

The preceding remarks apply as well to the teachers of the parochial high schools; it is the intention here, however, that the salary shall be such as to secure men competent for the positions. The office of chorister is seldom attached to the school, and in most of the large cities fixed salaries are paid by the communities.† The salaries of high school teachers are also paid from the revenues of the communities, unless the schools have taken the place of extinct Jesuit colleges, (as sometimes in Bohemia and Moravia,) or are attached to teachers' seminaries and consequently sustained from the school fund. The occupations of the teachers, aside from their school duties, are under the supervision of the director. The catechists are paid as other teachers, but in general no compensation is made to pastors for religious instruction.

11. Removal and Dismissal of Teachers.-Monks who are engaged in teaching may be called away by the head of their order, but only after three years of service and at the close of a school year. Trivial teachers can be removed only by the provincial authorities with the approval of the bishop and after the failure of all minor measures for his amendment by the pastor, district superintendent, and bishop. Offenses which endanger the welfare of the scholars or are punishable in the courts of justice are alone followed by immediate dismissal. Even when no longer competent for the duties of the school from advanced age or sickness, the only measure to be adopted is the appointment of an assistant. Resignation in favor of a third party, with a reservation of a portion of the school income, is no longer permitted, even in behalf of the son of the incumbent. A teacher can change his under-teachers only with the consent of the superintendent and after six weeks notice. Like notice is required on the part of the under-teacher, but such changes can not be made without sufficient reason before the close of a school term. The dismissal of an under-teacher must be preceded by admonition from the teacher, pastor, and superintendent, and the bishop may forbid his farther employment in the schools of his diocese. A formal publication of his incapacity for teaching can, however, only be made by the provincial authorities. The directors and teachers of the high schools are subject to the rules governing the removal of State officials.

* In Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia, much interest is taken by the country teachers in agriculture and orcharding, and the number of orchards attached to the schools has increased in seven years from 849 to 1,800, with 170,000 grafted trees. In Silesia the raising of bees has rapidly in creased, so that in 1860 there were 80 schools which had already nearly 500 hives.

† In Vienna three-sevenths of the principals receive 1,000 fl.; the remainder 800 fl., with a resi dence rent free, in all cases, or an equivalent. The teachers of the first class receive 600 fl. and 500 fl.; second class teachers, 400 fl. and 300 fl.; the number of teachers in the four grades being in the proportion of five, six, eight, and twelve. Advancement within a class is made by senior ity; from one class to another, by appointment.

[To be Continued.]

II. NATURE AND VALUE OF EDUCATION.

BY JOHN LALOR

THE chief difficulty with which a writer, who urges a reform in education, has to struggle, is the general ignorance of its nature,-of what it can do for mankind. If correct notions of its power were once impressed upon the public mind, so that men should feel the extent of their own educational want, im provements, which are now year after year vainly urged upon their attention, would at once be carried into effect. The utmost that is hoped, or dreamed by theorists, would be outstripped in action and practice by the energies of society, working out education, as they have worked out the arts dependent on the physical sciences. In attempting, therefore, to prove the advantage of giving increased social importance to the educational profession, it will be requisite, in the first place, to point out how much more than is usually supposed is properly included in education, and to show something of its power over human happiness.

Education, then, does not mean merely reading and writing, nor any degree, however considerable, of mere intellectual instruction. It is, in its largest sense, a process which extends from the commencement to the termination of existence. A child comes into the world, and at once his education begins. Often at his birth the seeds of disease or deformity are sown in his constitution-and while he hangs at his mother's breast, he is imbibing impressions which will remain with him through life. During the first period of infancy, the physical frame expands and strengthens; but its delicate structure is influenced for good or evil by all surrounding circumstances,-cleanliness, light, air, food, warmth. By and by, the young being within shows itself more. The senses become quicker. The desires and affections assume a more definite shape. Every object which gives a sensation, every desire gratified or denied, every act, word, or look of affection or of unkindness, has its effect, sometimes slight and imperceptible, sometimes obvious and permanent, in building up the human being; or, rather, in determining the direction in which it will shoot up and unfold itself. Through the different states of the infant, the child, the boy, the youth, the man, the development of his physical, intellectual, and moral nature goes on, the various circumstances of his condition incessantly acting upon him-the healthfulness or unhealthfulness of the air he breathes; the kind, and the suffi ciency of his food and clothing; the degree in which his physical powers are exerted; the freedom with which his senses are allowed or encouraged to exercise themselves upon external objects; the extent to which his faculties of remembering, comparing, reasoning, are tasked; the sounds and sights of home;

• Prize Essay on the Expediency and Means of Elevating the Profession of the Educator in Society. I'ublished by the Central Society of Education. London,

the moral example of parents; the discipline of school; the nature and degree of his studies, rewards, and punishments; the personal qualities of his companions; the opinions and practices of the society, juvenile and advanced, in which he moves; and the character of the public institutions under which he lives. The successive operation of all these circumstances upon a human being from earliest childhood constitutes his education;—an education which does not terminate with the arrival of manhood, but continues through life,-which is itself, upon the concurrent testimony of revelation and reason, a state of probation or education for a subsequent and more glorious existence.

The first inquiries, then, which present themselves are, whether circumstances act upon the mind at random, or according to any fixed and discoverable laws? -and how far is it in our power to control their operation? To these it can be answered, that the growth of the human heing, from infancy up, in mind as well as in body, takes place, at all events to a great extent, according to fixed laws. The assertion is qualified simply to avoid certain controversies which have no practical relation to the subject. No one can observe the movements of his own mind, or the mental operations of another, particularly a child, without discovering the frequent recurrence of the same combinations of thoughts, or of thoughts and acts. When two sensations, or a sensation and an idea, or two ideas, have been frequently experienced together, the occurrence of one ca'ls up the other. The name "table" suggests the idea. The first word of a familiar poem brings the others after it. A sudden blow excites anger. Frequent pain makes fre:fulness habitual. Here we see the operation of laws,-laws of mind discoverable by observation of nature, like the laws of mechanics or astronomy. These must form the basis of practical education,—the science on which the art is founded. The practical art of education has regard to a small part only of the long train of circumstances which operate upon a human being;-namely, that portion which belongs to his early life, and which is within the control of others. In this sense education means the body of practical rules, for the regulation of the circumstances about children, by which they may be trained up to the greatest perfection of their nature.

The nature of the laws of the human constitution, and of the power which a knowledge of them can give us, will appear more distinctly from a consideration of each of the three branches into which education is now, by common consent, divided—physical, intellectual, and moral. It is convenient to consider them separately, but each is intimately connected with the others. It will not be necessary to attempt, even in the most abridged form, a complete view of any one of these branches. A reference to a few principles in each will be sufficient to show that, by the general application of a system of education adapted to the wants and capacities of human nature, the condition of society, and particularly of its poorer classes, could be greatly elevated, and a host of evils which afflict mankind avoided.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

The influence of the physical frame upon the intellect, morals, and happiness of a human being, is now universally admitted. Perhaps the extent of this influence will be thought greater in proportion to the accuracy with which the subject is examined. The train of thought and feeling is perpetually affected by the occurrence of sensations arising from the state of our internal organs. The connection of high mental excitement with the physical system is obvious

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