ance. Should this fail, the aid of the magistrate, and, in extreme cases, of the provincial authorities may be called upon, who may place the children at school and visit the parents with fine or imprisonment. Such fines go to the benefit of the school or to the provincial school fund. Yet stringent measures can be resorted to only in cases of obstinacy or illwill. A proper maintenance of the school is made a prior condition to constant attendance, and the removal as far as possible of hindrances in the way of attendance must precede any compulsory measures for its enforcement. Numerous ordinances have been passed upon this subject, regulating the occupations of children, forbidding their employment in factories until nine years of age and after at least one year's attendance at school, requiring for such children the establishment of special evening schools, &c.

5. Support of Schools.-The support of the trivial school is obligatory first of all upon the school community—that is, upon the inhabitants of the district for which the school is designed; and all the necessary expenses consequent upon its continuance and improvement fall upon the several members of the community according to their just quotas, and the payment may be compulsorily enforced. Until very recently the school patron shared with the community in some portion of these expenses. In the erection of new schools, until 1848, the patron, the lord of the estate, and the community, were united-the landed proprietor in general providing the land and materials, the patron paying the workmen engaged in the erection and fitting up, and the community supplying other labor. Subsequent repairs, the rent of buildings for temporary use, fuel, &c., were also a charge on the three parties jointly. Upon the abolition of feudal relations the landed proprietor was relieved from responsibility, except as a member of the community to the extent of his tax assessment within its limits. The relations of the patron and the school remained less simply defined, and until the total abolition of school patronage, his share in other expenses than those which were most urgent and usual was left to mutual agreement. This naturally led in very many cases to long protracted negotiations and to many inconveniences, until the latest phase of constitutional development within the Empire brought with it relief. In 1863 the Government proposed to the provincial diets a law for the abolition of patronage, which has been concurred in by nearly all the provinces so far as to do away with the relation except where it originated in an endowment or rested upon some like ground, and even in such cases the extent of liability, if not already expressly fixed, was limited to one-fourth of the expenses, and the duties previously attaching to the patronage were transferred to the community.

Assistance is rendered from the provincial school funds only temporarily to such regular and authorized schools as can not otherwise be maintained, or permanently in case of the normal and model schools, which are designed for a general purpose and not merely to meet the necessities

of a community. The whole expense of these schools, both of establishment and maintenance, are defrayed from the fund unless they at the same time fill the place of parochial schools, in which case the fund advances but one-third or one-half of the expense, according as the institution is organized with three or four classes. Contributions are also made from the funds to supply the deficiencies in the salaries of the more poorly paid teachers.

The receipts and expenditures of the several school funds in 1864 are given in a subsequent page. Of these receipts, about 210,000 fl. consisted of interest upon State and private bonds; 50,000 fl., of tuition fees at the high schools, and some others-77,000 fl. from other funds, from corporations, and private persons—and 48,000 fl. from bequests and taxes upon legacies. Of the expenditures, above 630,000 fl. were employed in the payment of the salaries and pensions of teachers. The excess of the expenditures above the receipts, amounting in 1864 to 396,768 fl., is paid from the National Treasury. Several of the provincial diets also made considerable appropriations in 1863 for the improvement of the condition of teachers, and in 1864 still more was done. It is roughly estimated that the total expenditure by the State and provincial governments, by communities and private persons, and from funds and endowments, for common school purposes, amounted in 1864 to 10,000,000 fl. The expenditures of the city of Vienna alone amounted in 1862 to above 450,000 fl., of which 217,000 fl. were paid to teachers, and 157,000 A. for new school and gymnasium buildings.

6. School Superintendence. In general, the supervision of the internal affairs of the schools rests with the ecclesiastical authorities, while the care of its financial and material interests is intrusted to secular officials, both agencies coöperating and assisting each other as far as possible. The immediate oversight is committed, by Church and State alike, to the local pastor, of whatever creed, whose duty it is to see that the instruction and discipline of the school are what they should be, to observe the conduct and habits of the teacher and the attendance of the pupils, and to advance as he is able the school and its interests. He has, however, no authority beyond that of advice, admonition, and reprimand. The community is represented by the local school superintendent, who watches over the condition of the school buildings and furniture, the observance of the prescribed school hours and scheme of lessons, the public behavior of the teacher, the treatment and conduct of the scholars and their regularity of attendance, and the payment of all dues to the teachers, and reports to the proper authorities all complaints and offenses. Schools bclonging to religious orders are under the immediate care of the heads of the societies. High schools which are not also parochial schools are left to the director, with the general supervision of the pastor. Local funds and endowment are under the charge of the local magistrate with the pastor and superintendent, unless their management was otherwise provided for by the founders.

All the common schools within a deanery, superintendency, or like ecclesiastical jurisdiction, are subject to the supervision of the "schooldistrict superintendent," who is usually the dean (or corresponding Protestant or Greek official) and in the Catholic districts has also the oversight of the Jewish schools, which oversight is, however, somewhat of a negative character and limited to the methods, management, and moral conduct of the teacher. He decides such questions as may be brought before him, has an important influence in the appointment of teachers, tests their efficiency by regular annual visits, and examines into such faults in the schools of his district as may be brought to his notice. His visits are publicly announced, and all the subordinate school officers and others are notified and expected to be present. He reports the results with his suggestions, making mention of those teachers and pastors who are especially energetic and faithful. He has also to preside over the teachers' conferences of his district. He is aided and sustained by the presiding civil official of the district, who has charge also of all the external affairs of the schools, should urge negligent communities and individuals to the performance of their duties, supply means for the enforcement of compulsory measures, and inform himself as far as possible of the condition of the schools.

The Catholic schools of a diocese and the Protestant schools of a higher character are under the superior supervision of the bishop and his consistory and of the superintendent respectively, acting in the name of both Church and State. The influence of the bishop upon religious instruction and the character and choice of school-books, and in the train. ing of teachers of religion, attaches to his clerical position; his authority in the choice of district superintendents, and his participation in the visitation of schools, in the organization of teachers' seminaries, and in the appointment of teachers are given him by law. The emperor also appoints a member of the chapter, on nomination of the bishop, as "chief superintendent" for the Catholic schools, whose approval is necessary to the ratification of the proceedings upon school matters. In case of disagreement, appeal may be made to the provincial authorities. He has also immediate supervision of the schools in the place of episcopal residence, and the general right of visitation in extraordinary cases.

The highest administrative school authority within the province is the provincial government. It should see that the school duties of subordinate officials are faithfully performed, confirms the appointments of district superintendents, the plan of instruction in the teachers' seminaries, and the location of such teachers as are not appointed directly by itself or by the bishop, determines the language to be used in instruction, and gives permission for the establishment of new trivial schools and for their promotion to high schools. Its authority is exercised by a provincial council or, appointed as "Educational Referee," with whom for the management of what relates purely to instruction, there is associated another councilor as "Common School Inspector" for the province,

whose duty it is to draw up opinions, reports, and propositions respecting the schools and to prepare himself for this by regular journeys of inspection, investigating the condition of every school and giving especial and constant attention to the teachers' seminaries and teachers' conferences. His report receives the immediate attention of the government and upon subjects within the sphere of his superintendence no action can be taken contrary to his opinion without appeal in each case to the State Department.

Finally, the supreme control of the entire school system of the nonHungarian provinces is conducted by the State Department of Worship and Instruction, which prepares all general school laws, determines the organization of all public schools, regulates their distribution into schooldistricts, has the appointment and nomination of certain school officials, controls the whole school-book system, and has the oversight of the school funds. A "Council of Instruction" is attached to the Department, which has simply advisory oversight of all educational bills and ordinances, the erection, change, or abolition of schools, school-books and means of teaching, examines the reports of the school councilors and takes the initiative in all educational measures.

In the Military Frontier the schools are wholly under the military superintendence of the company, regiment, and battalion commands, over whom are the two general commanders at Agram and Temesvar, who report immediately to the War Department at Vienna. All the general ordinances of the Empire relating to the course of study and school-books, apply equally to this territory.

The whole system of Catholic schools is thus under the supervision of 11,076 pastors, 988 district superintendents, and 45 bishops and their consistories; the Greek schools are under 133 pastors, 22 district superintendents, and 2 bishops; the Protestant schools are under 191 pastors, 23 district superintendents, and 7 superintendents.

7. School Buildings. The "School Constitution" contains precise instructions respecting the construction of school-houses, requiring for each pupil seven and a half square feet of floor surface, three and a quarter feet of bench room, with a height of at least ten feet, a passage of two and a half feet between the benches, and a raised platform for the teacher, lighted from the left side. A vegetable garden and orchard should be attached to the country schools if possible. In Vienna, in view of the probable outlay of 4,000,000 fl. for buildings within the next twenty years, the most approved principles of school architecture have been followed in the prescribed plans, by which the parochial high schools must be furnished with at least eight school-rooms, none above the second story, not facing noisy streets, nor exposed to storms. Each room must contain from 450 to 700 square feet, suitably lighted and ventilated. There is also an examination-hall twice as large, a gymnasial hall on the ground floor of 900 feet area, and a gymnasial ground for summer exercises. The building should also include rooms for the residence of the principal

teacher. When the edifice is intended for two schools, separate passages and stairways are provided for the boys and girls, and an abundant supply of water should always be furnished for drinking and other uses.

The use of apartments in a private house for the purposes of a regular school is no longer permitted. The erection and maintenance of suitable buildings is the duty of the district authorities. More recently a local committee prepare the plans, specifications and estimates, which are submitted to the district authorities, or in more important cases to the circle or provincial authorities, and a committee is also appointed for the direction of the work. Where the recent laws abolishing the school patronage have gone into force, the community have more immediate control and only a general oversight rests with the district authorities.

8. Grades of Teachers. The trivial school, and also generally the parochial high school, is under a single "teacher," assisted, if necessary, by "under-teachers," who board in his family, and can marry only with the consent of certain of the higher school authorities. In the model school the teacher is designated as the "model teacher." The high school is under a "director," with as many teachers as classes, who may also receive the title of "professor." The parochial high schools of the city of Vienna rank in this respect nearly with the high schools proper, the instructors being known as "principals" and teachers. Directors and teachers of high and trivial schools have the privileges of State officials of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh rank respectively, wear the corresponding uniform, and claim certain recognitions of rank and position. Under-teachers are only relieved from military service. In the high schools a "catechist" is always employed for religious instruction, who is free from pastoral duties. In the female schools there is a similar system of female teachers and assistants, though, with the exception of the convent schools which may also be under the charge of male directors, some branches and even whole classes are often confided to male teachers. The Vienna authorities have declared in favor of placing the public female schools under male teachers exclusively.

9. Election of Teachers. Candidates for schools must have the certificates of their final school examination, or the evidence of a dispensation from it, and must give satisfactory evidence of their religious sentiments, moral character, and success if previously in service. It is necessary that they should be free from physical infirmity, be under forty years of age, be citizens of Austria, and have no relations or connections engaged at the same school. The second and third disqualifications may be avoided by dispensations from the State Department or from the emperor, and in respect to the last, trivial school teachers may have their sons as assistants.

In case of a vacancy in a trivial school, six weeks public notice is given by the bishop, the applications of the candidates are examined by the district superintendent, and such as are found satisfactory are reported by him to the patron, where such exists, who must make an unconditional