their respective shares of the expenses, and appropriations were also made by the Government for the increase of teachers' salaries, accompanied, however, with the denial that the State could be expected to assume the expense of public instruction. Definite regulations were made respecting the organization of new school-districts, and the establishment of special classes of imperfectly organized (irregular) schools, such as local circumstances not unfrequently made necessary. Half-day schools were for the most part abolished; the condition of teachers, and especially of assistant teachers, was improved; and pensions for teachers and their families were strongly insisted upon. The normal school course was increased to two years, and special normal instructors were provided. The fourth class of the high schools was transferred to the burgher schools, while the change of trivial schools into three-class parochial high schools was commenced at Vienna and extended into other provinces. Afterwards, as the high schools were organized into four classes, three classes were required in the trivial schools. The separation of the sexes was required in the higher classes of the high schools, at least, and the establishment of distinct female schools was especially favored. The instruction of adults was more carefully regulated, attendance was made more obligatory, and provision was made for the compensation of the teachers. Private schools were relieved from many restrictions that custom had laid upon them, but they were still under strict government control. The normal schools were gradually improved, a course of training for female teachers and for teachers of burgher schools was introduced, and scholarships were established for the benefit of poor pupils. The employment of teachers who had received no preparatory training, though still at times necessary, had become less frequent.

The general usefulness of the German language was recognized by the Government, and its introduction was recommended, especially into the high schools. It also favored joint instruction in several languages in the schools and made the necessary rules for its regulation. The old text-books were removed and new ones prepared, not only in the German language but in the Bohemian, Polish, Ruthenic, Slovenic, Croatian, Servian, Italian, Romaic, and Magyar, and other books for German instruction in the non-German schools and for the special use of the Protestant and Jewish sects.

The greater influence of the community in the control of the school, as provided for in Feuchtersleben's plan, was considered a matter of less importance than the determination of its duty in relation to the support of the school. The participation of its representatives was limited almost entirely to the necessary action in securing this support, the direction of the school being still exercised by the local school superintendent, which office had been continued from the earliest period. The " concurrence," which was continued in force provisionally for some years, was gradually modified in favor of the lords of the estates, the increased obligations of the communities being in a measure counterbalanced by the improved rights of property consequent upon the new relations now established.

The influence, upon the other hand, of the civil authorities of the district, of the circle, and of the province, (of the former, especially after its reorganization in 1849 and 1853,) had continually increased in the administration of the schools, though various changes were made in the form and character of their action. But the ecclesiastical superintendence over the schools was still carefully preserved, the pastor being not merely the immediate overseer of the school, but having a voice in the selection of the local school superintendent, and in certain cases even the right of rejection.

On the 18th of August, 1855, however, the Concordat with the Pope was ratified, by which the superintendence of the schools was placed more completely in the hands of the Church, by the following provisions:-"The instruction of Catholic youth, in all public as well as nonpublic schools, shall be throughout in accordance with the teachings of the Catholic religion; the Bishops, by virtue of their pastoral office, shall control religious instruction in all public and non-public institutions of learning, and watch thereover carefully, that there may be nothing in any branch of instruction that shall run counter to the Catholic faith and to moral purity. No one shall give religious instruction in any form whatever for a public or non-public institution, unless he shall have received from the bishop of the diocese commission and authority therefor, which the bishop is at liberty to recall if he deem it advisable. All teachers for schools designed for Catholics are placed under the superintendence of the Church. The Chief School Superintendent of the diocese is to be appointed by His Majesty from those nominated by the Bishop. If, in any of the said schools, sufficient provision is not made for religious instruction, the Bishop is at liberty to appoint a priest for the instruction of the scholars in the rudiments of the faith. The faith and morals of the teacher, desiring engagement, must be spotless, and whoever errs from the right path shall be removed from his position."

When a feeling of the importance of popular education had once taken firm hold of the mind of the people and when the treadmill of the ancient trinity of school studies was once abandoned, the coöperation of the communities and their contributions to school objects grew more zealous and abundant. The provincial capitals and many of the larger cities have taken pride in changing their trivial to high schools and in extending the latter by means of burgher schools, and the Jewish districts of Bohemia have emulated each other in establishing high schools of their own. In the Tyrol, where elementary instruction has always been the chief object of attention, effort was especially directed to the opening of "Stobschulen" in localities where the children (often not more than from five to fifteen in number) were prevented in winter from attending the parochial schools, and a society was formed for the assistance and support of poor children. Throughout the provinces almost the entire increase of the schools and their improvement have been effected without assistance from the already overburdened State treasury, and with many

instances of liberality on the part of individuals and of self-sacrifice even by many of the poorer communities.

The number also of capable teachers has greatly and rapidly increased. Among those now deceased have been Ferdinand Schubert, Director of the Vienna Normal School, brother of the noted composer and a teacher of fifty years' experience; John Strehl, his successor in the Normal School, the excellence of whose text-books in arithmetic has been long acknowledged; Francis Hermann, who restored to the Normal School at Prague the high reputation enjoyed by it under Felbiger and Kindermann, and whose books of methods are widely used; and Vincent Splawinski, Principal of the Normal School at Cracow. A school literature has arisen, Teachers' Associations have exerted their beneficial influence, school libraries have been formed, school instruction has become more mild and pleasant, and the schools have gained the respect and regard of the people.

. In October, 1860, the Ministry of Instruction was dissolved and its duties transferred to the newly created Department of State, at the head of which Chevalier de Schmerling still continues. In 1862 Helfert exhibited at Vienna, and afterwards at the World's Fair at London, a rare collection of all the objects that could aid in forming a just estimate of what had been effected by the Empire in the field of popular education-embracing ground plans and elevations of school buildings, school furniture, books, apparatus, and all the appliances and requisites of instruction actually employed in the schools, the written exercises of the scholars, and other material showing the results of instruction. At the close of the first session of the Imperial Parliament (June, 1863) still farther changes were made in the school administration, Baron von Lewinski being appointed to Helfert's position, and a celebrated teacher of the Prague University, Chevalier Hasner, being placed at the head of the newly constituted Board of Education.

2. Present System and Condition of Schools.

Such a degree of uniformity exists in the relations of the common schools of the non-Hungarian provinces of the Empire, notwithstanding many sectional peculiarities, that a somewhat systematic form may be given to a general description of their present condition. Of the following sections, numbers 1-6 will give the more general principles of the school system, 7-27 the most important details of its operation, and 28-31 an account of the burgher schools, teachers' seminaries, and other closely allied subjects.

1. Classes of Schools and their Distribution.-The common schools are divided into trivial and high schools. The trivial, or lower elementary schools, are "regular" when they are permanently organized in strict accordance with legal requirements, and are either "parochial" schools, which should exist in every parish, or "branch" schools, whose establishment is necessitated by the residence of considerable numbers of

children at a distance from the parochial schools. Besides these there are various kinds of more or less imperfectly organized or "irregular " schools, such as necessity or convenience may require. The high, or higher elementary schools, differ from the trivial in having a more extended course of instruction to supply the more advanced wants of the larger communities, and also to prepare for admission to the gymnasium or real school. They are distinguished as "high schools" proper, which hold a higher rank and share in special privileges, or as "parochial high schools," which aside from a more extended course of study remain still in the position of trivial schools.

At the capital of each province there is a "normal" or "model high school," so conducted, with such apparatus of instruction and such a grade of teachers, as to serve as a pattern for all the common schools of the province. With this school there is always connected a teachers' seminary, and wherever these seminaries are attached to other high schools the same name is given to them. Most of the trivial schools and not a few of the parochial high schools are attended by children of both sexes and are hence called "mixed" schools, the children being taught either in separate divisions or in distinct apartments. In the fourth class of the high school the sexes are always organized in wholly distinct divisions.

To every school, regular or irregular, a definite district is assigned, the children within which limits are "due" to the school. In some provinces much territory still remains not thus assigned, in consequence of the remoteness of the established schools and the difficulties of intercourse. Thus in Bukowina nearly one-half of the population, in Galicia nearly a third, in the Littorale nearly a fifth, in Dalmatia and Carniola a sixth, and a small portion also in Styria and Carinthia, are without schools and dependent upon such instruction as the pastors can give in connection with their religious teaching. In Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, the schools are the most favorably distributed, averaging one school to 54 square miles, and with an average population of about 1,200 to each school. In Upper and Lower Austria the influence of Vienna is seen in increasing the population to 1,200-1,400, while owing to the extent of mountainous region the area also to each school increases to 7-10 square miles. In the Tyrol, with its high mountains and rugged valleys, the population diminishes to less than 500 to each school, and while there is still one school to each seven miles of territory, yet the occupations of the children often prevent their attendance for more than half of the year. In the mountainous provinces of Salzburg and Carinthia, on the other hand, the poverty of many of the communities reduces the number of schools to one in from fifteen to twenty square miles. In Galicia nearly half the schools are irregular, and this province, together with Bukowina and Dalmatia, are the most poorly provided with schools of any portion of non-Hungarian Austria, notwithstanding the great improvement that has been effected within a very recent period.

2. Sectarian Character.-Every school is essentially sectarian, with respect alike to its scholars, teachers, and superintendence, and schools attended by children of different religions are only permissible generally as a last resort and with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities. Yet Protestant and Jewish children, where there is no school of their own to which they can be assigned, are obliged to attend the nearest Catholic school, and in want of any such, Jewish children attend the nearest Protestant or Greek school, attendance at school prayers and religious instruction being, of course, dispensed with. In like manner Protestant schools are attended by Catholic children. Aside from the Jews, each sect has nearly its proportionate number of schools; in Salzburg, Carniola, and the Tyrol, the Protestant population is too much scattered for the establishment of distinct schools, while in Upper Austria, Carinthia, and Galicia, and partially also in the Littorale and Styria, the Protestants have every where schools of their own, more in number than their ratio of the population would require, as in many cases the schools are necessarily small. In Bohemia and Moravia much of the Protestant population is scattered, and in Bukowina and Galicia their schools are mostly confined to the German and Hungarian colonies. The number of schools belonging to the Eastern Church is proportionately less, as this sect has but recently awakened to the importance of education. Until 1848, moreover, the Greek schools of Bukowina were under the control of the Catholic consistory, and their gradual transfer since into the hands of their own authorities has greatly promoted their increase.

3. Effect of Nationality.-The German race, wherever found within the Empire, is more careful than any other to take advantage of the means of public instruction afforded to its youth, and on the easternmost borders of Central European civilization the German colonists are still the principal supporters of the public schools. Towards the South the influence of this element gives place to that of the Italian. Among the branches of the great Slavonian family,the Czechish-Moravian has exerted the greatest influence upon the primary schools, followed by the Poles, and these again by the Slavenes, the Croats, the Ruthenes, and the Servians.

4. Compulsory Attendance.-The existence of a regular school makes obligatory the attendance of all children within its limits between the ages of six and twelve years, unless they have entered a higher institution or receive equivalent instruction at home. This obligation is not only general, but special to the school of the district within which the child resides, and, on the other hand, admission can not be denied to any child, no previous preparation can be required, nor can any degree of progress be made a condition of his continuance. In the larger cities transfer to other than the proper school requires only the consent of the school superintendent. Usually the coöperation of those immediately intrusted with the management of the school secures the required attend