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tion should be given in industrial employments. In the smaller cities the schools would need to differ little from those in the country, but in the larger cities there should be more advanced schools for pupils seeking more advanced instruction, and here tuition fees would serve to exclude the masses, while scholarships might be provided for such of the poor as were capable of benefiting by them.

Upon the basis of these opinions a Board of Educational Reform was created in 1795, with Rottenhann as president, and a membership of great ability, who, however, had generally more respect for the existing system than was shown by him. This Board was continued for several years and made numerous reports, but no decisive action was taken by the Emperor until 1802, when the Educational Sessions were abolished and the action of the Teachers' Associations was made merely advisory. Finally, in August, 1805, was published the "Constitution of the German Common Schools," which has for the most part continued since in force as the school law of Austria.

The principal provisions of this Constitution were the following:-The supervision of the trivial and country high schools rested first with the respective pastors, and secondly, with prominent schoolmen among the ecclesiastics, especially the deans of the district, who reported upon the instruction and discipline of the schools to the episcopal consistory and upon other subjects to the circle magistrate, and these in their turn to the provincial authorities. The district superintendent at the provincial capital was also chief superintendent and general referee for the province. The provincial authorities reported to the State Board of Education. Trivial schools were required in every parish, with a separation of the sexes, at least in the cities. There should be at least one high school in each circle, the higher class of which was open to girls, only where there were no special female schools. The high schools at the provincial capitals must be normal schools, besides which there should be female schools for the better classes, under the charge of female teachers. The trivial course was limited to the reading, writing, and understanding of the native language, with occasional instruction in grammar, the fundamental rules of arithmetic, religious instruction, vocal music, instruction in the duties of the laboring class, and in simple manual occupations. The teaching here was to be primarily directed to the cultivation and exercise of the memory and the teachers were restricted to the explanations given in the text-books. In the trivial schools of the larger towns a third class should be added for more extended instruction in grammar and arithmetic, as well as in the elements of geometry and mechanics. In the high schools, the third class should receive instruction in grammar and written composition in addition to the usual branches in city schools, while for the children of tradesmen and artisans there should be a fourth class, continuing two years, with a yet more extended course including geography and natural history. Trivial schools were required to have but one teacher, with assistants if necessary; high schools should have

as many teachers as classes, and normal or model schools a director in addition. Twenty hours of instruction per week were required, increased in the last half-year of the third class to twenty-five, and in the fourth class to thirty. In half-day schools the larger scholars should receive fifteen, and the younger eight hours. High school teachers must have received at least six months, and trivial school teachers three months, of normal instruction, but teachers' "certificates were given them only after a year's trial and a subsequent examination. Like certificates of qualification were required of private teachers. The qualifications and duties of teachers were defined with great strictness, and the methods of appointment of teachers and school officers were carefully regulated. High school teachers and their families had the right of pension, and trivial school teachers could claim the aid of an assistant in case of incapacity from age or prolonged sickness. Instruction should be gratuitous to children of the poor and of soldiers in the army, and text-books should be supplied to them at the rate of one book for two scholars. The number of scholars under a single teacher could not exceed 80-100, or twice this number in half-day schools, but no new school could be established unless plainly necessary and when the community could defray most of the expense. Plans to be followed in their erection were provided; the school furniture should be supplied by the patron, but the terms of concurrence between the patron, the territorial lord, and the community remained as before respecting the other expenses. No change was made in the previous regulations respecting the Protestant and Jewish schools, similar qualifications being required of the teachers, and the Jewish schools remaining wholly under Catholic superintendence.

Spendou was appointed School Referee in connection with the newly organized State Board of Education. In 1808 the archbishops and bishops were required to so far watch over the common schools as to secure purity of religious instruction to the Catholic children, but until 1834 no essential modification was made in this school code of 1804. Among the principal changes were a slight improvement in the pensions, salaries, and relations of the teachers, and their recognition as State servants of the class of "honoratiores," for which, however, the carrying on of any trade was forbidden. Increased care and strictness were required in the examination and choice of teachers, and the normal course for teachers of the trivial schools was extended to six months; three years' service was required prior to the permanent settlement of a normal or high school teacher, and no foreigner could be admitted to any position. Competitive examinations were introduced for teacherships of drawing, penmanship, and other branches of the fourth class. The number of schools was also increased by permitting branch (excurrendo) schools, attended as often as necessary by teachers who still retained connection with the regular schools, and the organization of the adult schools was rendered more perfect. Yet more stringent measures were taken to se

cure due religious instruction, no non-Catholic teacher could be intrusted with the instruction of Catholic children, and, on the other hand, the Protestant and Greek schools were placed under a superintendence distinct from that of the Catholic schools. Private schools were discouraged by numerous restrictions.

During the same period the circle of operation of the school laws became largely extended and now included the Tyrol, Salzburg, Dalmatia, the Lombardo-Venitian kingdom, and the Military Frontier. For the Tyrol, which was restored to Austria in 1814, the few changes required in the law arose chiefly from the absence of feudal relations. In Salzburg, which had been in the possession of Austria from 1805 to 1809 and was restored to her in 1815, the reigning prince assumed the patronage of all the schools with but four or five exceptions. Dalmatia, first acquired in 1797 and again in 1814, received in 1822 a special school ordinance modeled after the School Constitution. For Lombardy * and Venice a school law was issued in 1818, differing essentially from the School Constitution in several respects;-not creating the relation of patron, but placing the burden of the trivial schools entirely upon the communities; classing the high schools with the gymnasiums and placing them under similar regulations; changing the form of the higher grades of superintendence; making instruction wholly gratuitous; and requiring in the schools an entire separation of the sexes. In the Military Frontiert the School Constitution was immediately introduced, the military organization being still preserved in the system of superintendence. The reign of Ferdinand I. (1835-1848) was marked by no attempt at radical change in the school system. A normal school for female teachers was established at Vienna; competitive written examinations were required of candidates for all vacant teacherships; measures were taken for the better instruction of factory operatives; adult instruction was encour

* Lombardy, during the reign of Maria Theresa, was so far independent of her administration, that little was done toward the establishment of a system of popular education, and though an Educational Board was formed in 1795, a plan of school regulations proposed, religious orders abolished, and their revenues applied to educational purposes, yet but a beginning had been effected when the Austrian authority was extinguished in 1796. The Cisalpine Republic, which succeeded, was fully occupied with other questions. The Republic of Italy, in which it was next embraced, adopted the French Code of Education and extended its operation to Venice, where previously, in the short sway of Austria, (1797-1805,) its school system failed to gain foothold, so that on the restoration of her authority in 1814 gratuitous popular instruction scarcely existed. Through the energy of the new government, within four years 21 high and 2,600 trivial schools were established, with an attendance of 107,756 scholars.

†The Military Frontier is a belt of territory, of very irregular contour, stretching for 900 miles along the Turkish border, established as a means of defense against the Turks, for quarantine purposes, and for the prevention of smuggling. The constitution is entirely military, all above twenty years of age being sworn to service and the military officers exercising both civil and judicial au thority. The lands, held under feudal tenure from the Crown until 1850, are now vested in the inhabitants, the right of property belonging, however, not to individuals but to families. In 1764 the Empress had required German schools in all parochial villages, and in 1774 provision was made by the Military Board for normal instruction. In 1816 the manngement of the schools, which had greatly deteriorated during the previous wars, was transferred to the State Board of Education for the sake of harmony of action and uniform progress with the other provinces.

aged; and the use of text-books in the different languages was permitted. During this period, however, the State authorities were less energetic in their efforts in behalf of education than had been the case during the previous reigns. The personal interests of the patrons and landed proprietors were often permitted to outweigh more important public considerations. There still remained many districts of considerable extent without schools, and where they existed many were but half-day schools. Yet in the nineteen years from 1828 to 1847 the number of schools and scholars had largely increased. The number of high schools had grown from 261 to 333; of trivial schools, from 14,748 to 16,803; of these, the schools exclusively for girls had increased from 1,880 to 2,558; of teachers and assistants, from 21,873 to 27,656; of male pupils, from 840,307 to 1,012,516; and of female, from 601,655 to 802,836. The Sunday, or adult, schools had in the same time increased from 8,867 to 11,432, with an increase of 118,328 in the attendance. The use of the local languages had gradually become more prevalent in the schools in consequence of the increased influence of the non-German nationalities. Still in many sections too great a preference was given to the German, and in Galicia to the Polish. The scanty course of the trivial schools had not been extended, and the efficiency of schools of every grade was restricted by the want of coöperation among the teachers and of a thoroughly systematic plan of instruction, and by the forced adherence to old and defective text-books. Moreover, the six months' course of normal training that was required could be, at the best, but of little benefit, and the custom of selecting teachers upon other considerations than fitness for the office withdrew from the profession that respect which is indispensable to success. The schools thus gained a reputation even worse than they actually merited. Their condition was made the subject of much pamphlet discussion between the years 1840 and 1847.*

The revolution of 1848 that preceded the reformation of Austria under Francis Joseph I., opened a new era in the history of education within its limits. The high importance of popular instruction was recognized in the midst of the revolution by the creation of a special Ministry of Instruction, with Baron von Sommaruga at its head. He resigned his position in July of the same year, but Baron von Feuchtersleben continued Secretary of the Board and prepared a plan for the reorganization of the entire educational system. Asserting that no exertion or sacrifice could

* The condition of the Vienna schools in 1847 shows that there was good ground for complaint. Besides five high schools, there were then twelve three-class and fifty-two two-class trivial schools, and three female schools. Nearly half of the trivial schools occupied hired and mostly uusuitable pre n ses, often with 3-7 apartments under the charge of a single teacher, each room having an average of eighty-eight pupils. The teacher was chiefly occupied with the general management of the school, from which he sometimes received an income of 2,000 florins, committing the instruction entirely to assistants, hired at a small salary of 4-12 fl. per month, who were also obliged to give instruction out of school hours in order to increase his receipts. The sexes were seldom separated, scholars were received at any time, and school apparatus was almost entirely wanting. The qualifications of those engaged in teaching were only such as were required of trivial school teachers.

be too great to secure to all that degree of education without which the general right of suffrage would be an absurdity, the following measures were proposed for the increase and improvement of schools, their more judicious and careful supervision, and the higher training and more favorable position of teachers. It was proposed that the support of the common schools should rest upon the communities, all contributions that still remained obligatory upon other parties being paid into the treasury of the community, and the province and State rendering assistance where necessary. No tuition fees should be exacted in the country schools, and all instruction should be exclusively in the native language. Instruction should be given in the knowledge of natural objects, of man, and especially of their native land; also in singing and in physical exercises. Every trivial school should include a third class, with the necessary teachers, and the pastor should be permitted to teach other branches besides religion. In every province there should be a normal school for teachers, with a two or three years' course, to be gradually organized into a Teachers' Seminary. There should also be in each province a cheap school-journal, and the teachers of every city and school-district should, with the pastors, hold a convention at least semi-annually. Every school should be provided with a small library and the necessary apparatus for instruction. The salaries should be fixed and sufficient to enable the teacher to give all his attention to his duties as teacher and chorister, and the communities should make provision for pensions, to which the teachers should contribute. The schools should be superintended by a school committee composed of the pastor and teachers and an equal number from the community, over whom should be the circle or capital school inspector, with three colleagues, also subordinate to the provincial School Council, with which should rest the location of the teachers.

To carry these measures to some extent into immediate execution, regulations were made in September, 1848, that the native languages only should be used in instruction, that the admission and promotion of scholars should occur but at one fixed period annually, that the teachers should select their own methods, that the pastor should provide for the Sunday instruction of adults in religion, and that in the country instruction should be given in orcharding. The conditions of admission to the normal schools were fixed and the course limited temporarily to one year, and numerous conferences were at once organized among the teachers.

In November, 1848, Feuchtersleben was removed and Baron von Helfert received the Secretaryship, who for eleven years had charge of the administration of educational affairs, under the new Minister of Instruction, Count Thun. Many reforms were introduced during this period which will be more fully detailed in the following section. Among them was, in 1849, the reëstablishment provisionally of the terms of the previous "concurrence," which was made necessary by the disturbed relations of the parties and their unwillingness in many cases to bear

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