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own time which Shakespeare wrote, and it undoubtedly reproduces conditions, manners, and habits which he had known at first hand in Stratford. Falstaff shows a great decline in spontaneity, freshness, and humor; he has become gross, heavy, and dull; he easily falls a victim to very obvious devices against his dignity; he has sunk so low that he has become the butt of practical jokers. It is probable that this particular development of Falstaff was suggested to Shakespeare by Elizabeth. rather than forced upon him by the expansive force of the character. As a whole, the play shows breadth of characterization and genuine humor; while Windsor and the country about it are sketched with unusual fidelity to detail, but with characteristic freshness of feeling for fields and woods.

This homely comedy of middle-class English country life, with its boisterous fun, its broad humor, and its realistic descriptive passages, was probably written not long before "Much Ado About Nothing," but the two plays present the most striking contrasts of method and manner. The Italian play is in an entirely different key; it is brilliant, spirited, charged with vivacity, and sparkling with wit; it is a masterpiece of keen characterization, of flashing conversation, of striking contrasts of type, and of intellectual energy, playing freely and buoyantly against a background of exquisite beauty. The dramatist was now completely emancipated from his earlier teachers, and had secured entire command of his own genius and of the resources of comedy as a literary form. In this splendid creation of his happiest mood in his most fortunate years the prophecy of sustained and flashing interchange of wit in Lyly's court plays is amply fulfilled, and the promise of individual power of characterization clearly discerned in Biron and Rosaline is perfectly realized in Benedict and Beatrice; while Dogberry and Verges mark the perfection of Shakespeare's skill in drawing blundering clowns. In this play the blending of the tragic and humorous or comic is so happily accomplished that the two contrasting elements flow together in a vital and exquisite harmony of experience, full of tenderness, loyalty, audacity, and brilliancy; the most comprehensive contrast of character is secured in Hero

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and Claudio, Benedict and Beatrice, as chief actors in the drama, with Dogberry and Verges as centers of interest in the minor or subsidiary plot. Hazlitt declares with reference to this play that perhaps "the middle point of comedy was never more nicely hit, in which the ludicrous blends with the tender, and our follies, turning round against themselves in support of our affections, retain nothing but their humanity." In "The Merry Wives of Windsor Shakespeare drew with a free hand the large and rather coarse qualities of English middle-class life; in "Much Ado About Nothing "he presented a study of life in the highest stage of the social order, touched at all points with distinction of insight, characterization, and taste. The gayety and brilliancy of the great world as contrasted with the little world of rural and provincial society are expressed with a confidence and consistency which indicate that the poet must have known something of the court circle and of the accomplished women who moved in it.

Written probably about 1599, and drawing apparently for some features of the plot and comic incidents upon the inexhaustible Bandello and upon one of the greatest works of Italian genius, the "Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto, "Much Ado About Nothing" marks the highest point of Shakespeare's creative activity in comedy, and perhaps the most brilliant and prosperous hour in this prolific and fortunate period of his life.

In the same year Shakespeare created his masterpiece of poetic pastoral drama, "As You Like It." He was still in the sunlight, but the shadows were approaching; his mood was still gay and his spirits buoyant, but the one was touched with premonitions of sadness and the other tempered by a deepening sense of the complexity of life and its mystery of good and evil. In the form and background of the play he was in touch with the love of pastoral life shared by many of the poets of his time; by Lodge and Greene, by Spenser and Sidney. The Arcadia of literature was in his imagination, but the deep shadows and wide spaces of the Forest of Arden in Warwickshire were before his eye; he knew the affected passion for flowering meads and gentle shepherds which were the stock-in-trade of

many contemporaries, but he also felt that fresh and unforced delight in nature which brings him in touch with the modern poets. He knew how to use the conventional poetic speech about nature, but he saw nature with his own eyes as clearly as Burns and Wordsworth saw her two centuries later. The plot of "As You Like It" was probably taken from Lodge's "Rosalynde ; or Euphues' Golden Legacy," an old-fashioned, artificial, pastoral romance, full of affectations and unrealities, based upon the much older" Tale of Gamelon," which appeared in the fourteenth century and was handed down in several manuscripts of Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," and was probably intended. for use in a tale which the poet left unwritten. This old story belongs to the cycle of the Robin Hood ballads; and Shakespeare had this origin of the story in mind when he wrote: "They say he is already in the Forest of Arden, and a many merry men with him; and there they live like the old Robin Hood of England."

The woodland world of Arden, in which sonnets are affixed to ancient trees, and lovers, courtiers, and moralists live at ease, has much in common with the pastoral backgrounds of Spenser and Lodge; but its artificiality is redeemed by its freshness of spirit, its out-of-door freedom, and its enchanting society. Rosalind and Orlando are the successors of a long line of pastoral lovers, but they, alone among their kind, really live. In Rosalind purity, passion, and freedom are harmonized in one of the most enchanting women in literature. In her speech love finds a new language, which is continually saved from extravagance by its vivacity and humor. In Audrey and Corin the passion of Orlando and Rosalind is gently parodied; in Touchstone the melancholy humor of Jacques is set out in more effective relief. There are threatenings of tragedy in the beginning of the play, but they are dissolved in an air in which purity and truth and health serve to resolve the baser designs of men into harmless fantasies. In Jaques, however, there appears for the first time the student of his kind who has pierced the illusions of place and power and passion, and touched the underlying contradiction between the greatness of man's desires and the uncertainty and inadequacy of his achievements. This sad

ness is touched with a not unkindly irony; for Shakespeare's vision was so wide that he was rarely able to look at life from a single point; its magnitude, its complexity, the rigor of its law, and at the same time the apparent caprice with which its diverse fortunes were bestowed, were always within his view.

At the best, we

seem to hear him say in this mood: All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players.

Jacques must not be taken too seriously, but there are hints of Hamlet's mood in his brooding meditation; and through the whole play there is a vein of sadness which, mingled with its gayety and poetic loveliness, gives it a deep and searching beauty.

In the Christmas season of 1601 "Twelfth Night" was presented in the noble hall of the Middle Temple. "At our feast," writes John Manningham, a member, in his diary, "we had a play called 'Twelfth Night; or, What You Will.' Much like the 'Comedy of Errors' or 'Menæchmi' in Plautus; but most like and near to that in Italian called 'Inganni.' A good practise in it to make the steward believe his lady widowe was in love with him, by counterfeiting as from his lady in general terms, telling him what she liked best in him, and prescribing his gesture in smiling, his apparel, etc., and then when he came to practise making him believe they took him to be mad." This charming comedy, so characteristic of Shakespeare's genius at play, was probably acted by the Lord Chamberlain's servants, the company with which Shakespeare was associated, before the Court in the old palace at Whitehall during the

same season.

The ultimate source of the play was probably Bandello's "Novelle," though the Italian plays to which Manningham refers (there were several plays with the title Inganni) may have furnished incidents; but Malvolio, Sir Toby Belch, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, Maria, and, above all, Viola, as they live in the comedy are Shakespearean to the heart. The framework of the play is essentially serious, a beautiful vein of poetic feeling runs through it, and, intermingled with these, the most unforced and uproarious fun. In inventiveness in the comic type and in freedom in handling it, as well as in grouping of

and other books. He has drawn his material for the present work from original sources, and in every way this book is first hand and thorough. It is, moreover, a readable and often dramatic narrative of events, a close study of a critical period of French history, and an impartial analysis of the character and powers of the brilliant and implacable Cardinal who left such an impress of molding strength on France, and so mightily affected all Europe. Mr. Perkins's "Richelieu" will at once take its place as one of the very best of an almost uniformly excellent series. Second Lady Delcombe, The. By Mrs. Arthur Kennard. The J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 42x74 in. 328 pages. 50c.

Shakespeare's Julius Cæsar. Edited by George T. D. Odell, Ph.D. (Longmans's English Classics.) Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 7×5 in. 161 pages.

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To an English Sparrow. By William S. Lord. Published by the Author, Evanston, Ill. 5×8 in. 10 pages.

Trusts: What Can We Do with Them? What Can They Do for Us? By William M. Collyer. The Baker & Taylor Company, New York. 72x5 in. 338 pages. $1.25. This volume is an exceptionally able defense of trusts. The author puts effectively innumerable illustrations of the wastes incident to competition, and keeps in the background the economies incident thereto. He boldly takes the position that "the mother of trusts" is not the tariff, as Mr. Havemeyer said, nor the desire of producers for higher prices, as most men believe, but "the demand for cheap production." In defense of this proposition he urges the economy of production on a large scale; but he does not make clear why the demand for cheap production leads great concerns to enter combinations which promise extravagant dividends to small competitors if they too will enter. In short, this book, though well written, is to be read as the plea of an attorney rather than the opinion of a judge.

Notes and Queries

It is seldom possible to answer any inquiry in the next issue after its receipt. Those who find expected answers late in coming will, we hope, bear in mind the impediments arising from the constant pressure of many subjects upon our limited space. Communications should always bear the writer's name and address.

Can you tell me anything of a body of Christians calling themselves" The Catholic and Apostolic Church"? They flourish in Europe, and the burden of their teaching is the coming of Christ, which I think they believe to be imminent. Their service, I am told, is ornate and very impressive. They differ from the Millerites and Second Adventists. Are there any in this country? When and where did they originate? J. E. C. The Catholic Apostolic Church, nicknamed " Irvingites" from its acceptance of the teachings of Edward Irving, a Scotch clergyman, has flourished chiefly in Great Britain, where it originated in the early part of this century. There have been a few congregations in this country, but it appears to be in a decline even in its native land. Prominent among its doctrines, besides the Advent, is that of a revival of the primitive gifts of the Spirit, especially the gift of tongues and the gift of healing.

Will you kindly publish in an early number the names and prices of a few of the best magazines for circulation in a Mothers' Club?

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Your club will find useful," Art Education," J. C. Witter Company, 123 Fifth Avenue, New York; "Good Housekeeping," Springfield, Mass.: The American Kitchen Garden," published by the Home Science Publishing Company, 488 Tremont Street, Boston, Mass.; "Harper's Bazar," New York; "Bird Lore," Harrisburg, Pa.; Kindergarten Magazine," The Temple, Chicago; "Child-Garden," 9333 Prospect Avenue, Chicago; "ChildStudy Monthly," Auditorium Building, Chicago; "Education," 50 Bromfield Street, Boston; "Domestic Science Monthly," Oakland, Cal.; "The Chautauquan," Cleveland, Ohio; "Health Culture," 503 Fifth Avenue, New York; "Trained Motherhood," 13 Park Row, New York; "St. Nicholas," New York.

Please suggest the two best critical commentaries on each of the four Gospels (English).

McD.

The "International Critical Commentary" is far the best. Two volumes on the Gospels have already appeared, viz., Mark and Luke, and the others are soon to

follow (Scribners). Decidedly good is the much briefer work of Professor Cary's "The Synoptic Gospels" in the series of New Testament Handbooks (Putnams). I am expecting to give my young people a series of Sunday evening talks next winter on the subject, Legendary tradition of the creation, flood, and prehistoric times generally. Can you recommend a good work to me covering this topic? Give publisher and price of same. W. B. S.

See Ryle's "Early Narratives in Genesis" (The Macmillan Company, New York, $1); Morris's "Man and His Ancestor" (the same, $1.50); also Smith's " Chaldean Account of Genesis" (Scribners, $3), and Clay's Man, Past and Present" in the Cambridge (Eng.) Scientific Series (Macmillan, $3).

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Can you tell me when and by whom the system of dating was established as changed to before and after Christ, or B.C. and A.D.? J. M. A Roman abbot, Dionysius the Little, introduced into Italy in the sixth century the system of dating from the year of the birth of Christ. Old English charters show that it was used in England before the close of the eighth century. The article on Chronology in the Encyclopædia Britannica gives accounts of the methods of reckoning time employed by different peoples.

Kindly inform me whether there is a book published on Protestant missions among the American Indians during the eighteenth century. If there is not any cingle book, where could I obtain information on that subject?

J. W. "The Life and Times of David Zeisberger," a Moravian missionary in Pennsylvania, and "Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England" (Pilgrim Press. Boston). Occom was a distinguished Indian convert and preacher in New England.

Can any reader tell me where I can find a full account of the case of Edgar Mortara, the Jewish child who, about 1858, was taken by the authorities of the Roman Catholic Church from his parents, on the plea that he belonged to that Church inasmuch as he had been baptized, although it was. I think, by his nurse? ANTIQUARIAN,

Vol. 66

The Outlook

Published Weekly

September 8, 1900

No. 2

Russian diplo to the Russian proposition in the following words:

China: The Russian-American macy has given

Proposal the Powers a surprise in its proposal that the allies withdraw their troops from Peking during negotiations for the establishment of a recognized Government in China and the settling of questions of indemnity and security for the future. That Russia

should plainly state her willingness to maintain the northern Chinese border as it was before the Boxer outbreak is indeed ex

traordinary, and contradicts what was generally believed to be her policy of aggression in Manchuria, and all the more so as the week's despatches show that Russian troops are occupying almost all of Manchuria except Mukden. From the point of view of the United States it is extremely gratifying to have from Russia the positive declaration that she has "no designs of territorial acquisition in China," and that she is ready to retire from Newchang, which she has "occupied for military purposes." The Russian note to the Powers even goes so far as to declare that orders have been given to the Russian Minister in Peking to withdraw to Tientsin and for the Russian troops to be withdrawn, and this apparently without reference to the action of other Powers. In reply, our Government expresses its pleasure that all the Powers have disclaimed aggressive purposes-a somewhat questionable assertion as to Germany, one may think; asserts that far the greater part of China is now at peace, and that some of the Viceroys are active in suppressing the Boxers; repeats its former declaration of the purposes of the United States, now partly accomplished by the relief of the legations, and to be fully satisfied by restoration of peace, security to foreigners, and permanent future protection; and then replies directly

In our opinion, these purposes could best be attained by the joint occupation of Peking, under a definite understanding between the Powers, until the Chinese Government shall have been re-established and shall be in a position to enter into new treaties with adequate provisions for reparation and guarantees of future protection. With the establishment and recognition of such authority, the United States would wish to withdraw its military forces from Peking, and remit to the processes of peaceful negotiation our just demands.

occupation of Peking would be ineffective to produce the desired result, unless all the Powers unite therein with entire harmony of purpose. Any Power which determines to withdraw its troops from Peking will necessarily proceed thereafter to protect its interests this would make a general withdrawal expediin China by its own method, and we think that ent. As to the time and manner of withdrawal, we think that, in view of the imperfect knowledge of the military situation resulting from the interruptions of telegraphic communication, the several military commanders at Peking should be instructed to confer and agree together upon the withdrawal as a concerted movement, as they agreed upon the advance.

We consider, however, that a continued

The result of these considerations is that, unless there is such a general expression by the Powers in favor of continued occupation as to modify the views expressed by the Government of Russia and lead to a general agreement for continued occupation, we shall give instructions to the commander of the American forces in China to withdraw our troops from Peking, after due conference with the other commanders as to the time and manner of withdrawal.

In short, the United States would prefer that the Powers continued to occupy Peking at present, but not unless all the Powers agree to that course; therefore it is ready to withdraw if Russia does so. As we write, the replies of the other Powers to Russia's note have not been made public. English papers are outspoken in resenting the fact that the lead should thus be taken

by Russia; they regard the move as one to acquire predominance by that nation in whatever action may be taken, and think that the result would be to place too much power in the hands of Li-HungChang, whom the English regard as distinctly favorable to Russian as opposed to British interests and influence in China. Earl Li is still in Shanghai, so that the discussion as to detaining him at Taku turns out to have been useless, not to say unwise. The New York "Tribune" on Saturday published this despatch from Li-Hung-Chang: "Withdrawal of foreign troops from Peking would facilitate peace negotiations. No doubt need be entertained that I shall undertake vigorously to restore order, protect foreigners, and punish and suppress the Boxers."

Actual news from Peking last In Peking week filtered through the imperfect telegraph agencies very slowly, and the despatches have an unfortunate tendency to lose their dates in transmission. Mr. Conger, in an undated message (which probably left Peking about. August 24), stated that on August 28 (Tuesday of last week) a formal entry would be made into the Imperial Palace, that a "military promenade" of all nations would be made through it, and that it would then be closed and guarded. Despatches to other Governments refer to this spectacular programme in the same way, and doubtless it took place on the day named. Such a demonstration has for its object the impressing of the idea. of foreign power and victory on the Chinese people; in 1860, despite the burning and looting of the Summer Palace, the common people were taught and believed that the English and French forces retired from Peking because they dared not enter the sacred precincts of the Inner City. Mr. Conger also cabled that Prince Ching (a man of high standing with the Chinese Government, and one favorably disposed toward foreigners) was expected at Peking soon; and there are other indications that at least a part of the members of the Tsungli-Yamen (Foreign Office) are assembling in Peking. No definite news of the Emperor and Empress Dowager has been received. The forces of the allies in Taku, Peking,

Tientsin, and between these cities are reported on August 18 as about 46,000 men, while Russia has large forces in Manchuria, and Great Britain, France, and Japan have troops at Shanghai and in the Yangtse and Amoy regions, and German forces are beginning to arrive in considerable numbers. Most conflicting accounts are given of the experiences of those shut up in the Peking legations so long, some narrators saying that the Chinese made but faint attacks, while others

and these probably the more accurate— state that immunity from destruction was secured only by a marvelously skillful construction of sand-bags and earthwork defenses, and that even then only the fact that the Chinese guns were too close to allow of the right elevation averted total destruction; one reporter states that in the first three weeks of the siege of the legations 2,800 shells fell within the walls. The total loss of the imprisoned foreigners was 65 killed and 131 wounded. Mr. Gilbert Reid, the well-known missionary, was the only American civilian wounded. The first entrance of the rescuers was effected by a company of Sikhs, led by Sir Alfred Gaselee, who waded up a sewage-canal under the Tartar City wall. All accounts speak well of the behavior of the American soldiers, and correspondents who have described the looting and plunder at Tientsin and Peking as extensive and lamentable expressly state that the American troops took no part in the excesses, and remained under discipline.

A Defeat for the Boers

The events of last week in South Africa make it not impossible that the end of armed resistance to British power is at last near. Lord Roberts's advance in force to the northeast was for a while stubbornly resisted, but the battle before Machadodorp, which of late has been the Boer headquarters, resulted in a distinct and serious defeat for the Boers, and was followed by the evacuation of Machadodorp and a retreat toward the north in the direction of Lydenburg. General Buller's column had the brunt of the attacking movement, and acquitted itself with credit. Scouting parties sent out by the British report that the

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