EULER-EUPHONY. materiality of the soul, and to defend revelation against free thinkers. In his wellknown Lettres à une Princesse d'Allemagne, sur divers Sujets de Phys. et de Philos. (Berlin, 1763, 3 vols., since republished several times; also in German, Petersburg, 1773), he attacks the Leibmitzian system of monads, and preëstablished harmony; but it is evident that this was not the field for him to shine in. Meusel has given a catalogue of his numerous writings, which have not appeared in collections. We will only mention here his Theoria Motuum Planetarum et Cometarum (Berlin, 1744, 4to.); his Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum (Lausanne, 1748, 2 vols.); his work already mentioned, which has always been regarded as his greatest production-Institutiones Calculi Differentialis (Berlin, 1755, 4to.); his Institutiones Calculi Integralis (Petersburg, 1768-70, 3 vols. 4to.; new edition, 4 vols., 1792-94); his remarkably clear and intelligible Introduction to Algebra (ed. by Ebert, Berlin, 1801, 2 vols.); his Dioptrica (Petersburg, 1767-71, 3 vols. 4to.); his Opuscula Analytica, &c. Euler was of an amiable character, unassuming in his manners, of a cheerful and always pleasant temper; he was fond of society, and had the art of enlivening it by an agreeable wit. During the last 17 years of his life, he was totally blind. By his first marriage, he had 13 children, 5 of whom were living when he married his second wife, his sister-in-law. Of his sons, John Albert, born at Petersburg, 1734, where he died, 1800, followed in his father's steps, was a thorough and expert mathematician, and wrote many treatises, of which seven gained prizes. A catalogue of them has been given by Meusel. EULOGIES Compose, particularly in French literature, a separate branch of belles-lettres. In the age of Louis XIV, they took the place of biography. Their object being the praise of distinguished men, truth has been often sacrificed in them to flattery. The French academy, especially, has paid this tribute to literary merit. The epoch of eulogies began with Fontenelle, who published two volumes of them, in 1731, distinguished for their clearness, vivacity and elegance. Those which followed them were written with much oratorical pomp. Some of the best eulogies are by Thomas (author of Essais sur les Éloges), D'Alembert, La Harpe and Condorcet. 601 the eunuchs, destined to become the guardians of the great harems of the Turkish empire, are made such in a village near Siout, the capital of Upper Egypt, where the operation is performed mostly by Coptic priests. The slaves who suffer are too young to have any moral repugnance to the ceremony which they have to pass through; on the contrary, they are, most of them, it is said, delighted with the prospect of the fine clothes, horses, &c., which they will have at command when they become guardians of the harems. Burckhardt, Sonnini, Belzoni, and other travellers, differ in respect to the number of those who die in consequence of the operation. Doetor Madden, to whom the Coptic priests were ordered by the casheff to state the proportion, says that, out of 100, 15 die. (See Letter xxv, in R. R. Madden's Travels in Turkey, Egypt, Nubia and Palestine, London, 1829, Philadelphia, 1830.) EUPATORIUM; a genus of plants, belonging to the natural order composita, containing a great number of species, most of which are natives of America. Their roots are perennial, possessing a rough, bitter, or aromatic taste; the leaves opposite, verticillate, or, sometimes, alternate; the flowers small, white, reddish, or bluish, in corymbs. More than 30 species inhabit the U. States, among them the E. perfoliatum (thorough-wort, or bone-set), a common plant, in low grounds, throughout the Union. leaves of this plant are opposite, and joined together at the base, the two forming, apparently, a single leaf, which is perforated by the stem. This plant is a popular remedy, acting powerfully as a sudorific and emetic, and sometimes as a purgative. The E. ayapana of Brazil, which has been much celebrated, possesses similar properties, and probably many others of the genus do also. The EUPHONY (from the Greek cipwvín, in Latin euphonia, from wvý, sound, and s, well) means agreeable and harmonious sound, particularly the harmony of words; thus, for instance, we say, in Italian more regard has, probably, been paid to euphony than in any other modern European language; in fact, this language has often disregarded etymology for the sake of euphony. In general it may be said, that the languages which are derived from the Latin have paid more regard to euphony than those of the Teutonic stock; the latter adhering, too often pedantically, to the etymology of words, as if the lanEUNUCHS. (See Castrates.) Many of guage was intended only for the eye, and EUMENIDES. (See Furies.) EUNOMIA. (See Hours.) VOL. IV. 51 602 EUPHONY-EURIPIDES. not much more for the ear. Euphony is more particularly consulted in a language, when it is still in its youth; but the more there has been written in it, the less regard is paid to euphony in the formation of new words. From a similar cause, more regard is paid to euphony among the lower than among the higher classes. With the former, language is addressed more to the ear than the eye; but, as we ascend to the higher classes, the language becomes more a means of written communication, and euphony is more neglected. Again, in that nation in which most is written, and which affords the fewest occasions for public speaking-we mean the German-comparatively little attention is paid to euphony, and much to etymology; so that, when the people have formed a practical and euphonic word, contrary to the strict rules of etymology, which, in England or the U. States, the two most practical of civilized countries, would instantly come into use, a German writer will not use it without a cautious so called" (sogenannt). The Greeks gave its due weight to euphony, and the Romans, also, allowed it a great influence, as every nation will do, in which the language is addressed more to the ear than to the eye. given its name to two departments, that of the Eure, and that of the Eure and Loire. (See Department.) The river rises in the department of the Orne, and falls into the Seine, on the left bank, near Pont-del'Arche, after a course of 124 miles, being navigable for about half the distance. EURIPIDES. This poet was born in the 1st year of the 75th Olympiad, at Salamis, on the day on which the vast navy of Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks: and thus this event serves as a point of connexion of the three greatest tragic poets of Greece; for Eschylus was one of the victors on this occasion, and the young Sophocles danced at the triumph. Of the youth of Euripides we know only that his father, in consequence of some false prediction, intended to train him for an athlete; but his natural inclination led him to different pursuits. At first he studied painting, but afterwards applied himself to rhetoric, under Prodicus, and to philosophy, under Anaxagoras (not Socrates). These studies had so powerful an influence on his poetry, that he might be called the rhetorical tragedian with no less truth than he is called the philosophical tragedian. Euripides lived at a time when Greek tragedy was carried to its greatest perfection by Sophocles, to be ranked as second to whom is high glory. These two poets were the favorites of their age. The tragedies of Euripides were represented at the same time with those of Sophocles, and sometimes gained the prize in preference. critics, indeed, did not agree unanimously in this decision of the public; and the unsparing satire of Aristophanes was directed against the popular poet, whom he ridiculed in cutting parodies. tophanes," says Richter, "like another Moses, showers his frogs on Euripides, only to chastise his lax and relaxing morality, not blinded, like Socrates, by his moral sentences to the immoral tendency of the whole." The number of his tragedies has been variously stated, from 75 to 92; as it is known that he finished his works with great care, the former estimate seems more probable. Only 19 are extant, on the merit of which we have the following criticism by A. W. Schlegel: "Considering Euripides by himself, without comparing him with his predecessors, selecting many of his better pieces, and taking single passages in others, we cannot deny him extraordinary merit. But if we regard him in connexion with the history of the art, and look EURE; a river of France, which has at the whole scope and aim of his pieces, EUPHRATES, or PHRAT, or FRAT; one of the largest and most celebrated rivers of Asia, which has its rise in the mountains of Armenia, from two principal sources, one issuing from a mountain in the vicinity of Bajazid and Dradin, not far from mount Ararat, the other from mountains around Erzerum. These two streams unite near Palo. The general course of the river is south-easterly. At Corna, 130 miles above its mouth, it is joined by the Tigris. The united stream, called the Shat ul Arab, flows into the Persian gulf, 70 miles below Bassora. The whole length is upwards of 1500 miles. It is navigable for ships of 500 tons to Bassora, and, in the driest season, for large boats to Shukaskac, a day's sail above 'Corna. According to Kinneir, the greatest increase of the Euphrates is in January, when it rises 12 feet perpendicular. The Euphrates is one of the most celebrated rivers of antiquity. On its banks is generally placed the paradise of the Mosaic records; and here Nimrod laid the foundations of the Babylonian empire. Between the Euphrates and the Tigris lay the fertile Mesopotamia, the country of the patriarchs. EUPHROSYNE. (See Graces.) The "Aris EURIPIDES-EUROPA. as it appears in those which have come down to us, we find cause for much and severe censure. Of few writers can so much good and evil be truly said. He had an inexhaustible invention, and the most various accomplishments; but, amidst an abundance of brilliant and attractive qualities, there is wanting that elevated gravity of spirit, and that nice dramatic tact, which we admire in Eschylus and Sophocles. He is always aiming to please, no matter by what means. Hence it is that he is so unequal: frequently he has passages of exquisite beauty; at other times he sinks into mere common-place. With all his faults, he has an admirable ease, and a certain insinuating grace." If the reader would view both sides of the poet's character, he may peruse A. W. Schlegel's essay, A Comparison of the Phadra of Euripides with that of Racine, in connexion with what he has said in the fifth of his Lectures on the Dramatic Art and Literature. A part of the faults of Euripides may be charged to the age in which he lived, which was an age of sophistical disquisition, of political controversy and rhetorical art; though it can never be a sufficient apology for wrong, that it is fashionable. Euripides made it a chief aim to awaken the tender emotions. "He knew," says another critic, "the nature of the passions, and had the art of inventing situations in which they could have their full play. Withal he has an elegiac tone, which seldom or never fails of its effect. Most of his characters were once in the enjoyment of distinguished prosperity, and the retros pect, in their present situation, checks the violence of the passions, and lowers them to the tone of lamentation. For this reason, in his tragedies, the passions are breathed forth in soft complaints, rather than raised to a lofty height; for the same reason, he is so rich in moral sentences, and philosophical declamations, as his personages have always coolness enough to reflect on their situation. Euripides knew well what was suited to produce an effect at the moment. The times of boldness, when Eschylus wrote, were past, and the power of the state was beginning gradually to sink. The pathetic manner of Euripides then became popular." Various faults may be found with his loose plan, his often unintelligible changes of character, his superfluous choruses, and sometimes, too, his subject; but he stands preeminent in true, natural expression of the passions, in interesting situations, original groupings of character, 603 and various knowledge of human nature. He is a master, too, in the art of managing the dialogue, in adapting the speeches and answers to the character, the sex and station, the known or private views, the present disposition of the speaker, and the necessity of the moment, in short, to all that gives distinctness and individuality to a person. There is, too, a certain tenderness and softness diffused over his writings, which cannot fail to please the mind. He has been often called the woman-hater, probably on account of his many severe sentences on the follies of the female sex. Yet he was not disinclined to the sex, and is said to have had two wives. We meet, too, in his works, occasional descriptions of female loveliness, and his sensibility to the nobler charms of female purity and virtue cannot be denied. It is not likely, as has been said, that his hatred of women, and of his own wife in particular, drove him from Athens to Macedonia; he went at the invitation of king Archelaus, whose favor and confidence he enjoyed. According to the tradition, he there met with an unfortunate end, being torn to pieces by dogs, or dying in consequence of their bites. The monarch erected a splendid monument, with the inscription, "Thy memory, O Euripides, will never perish." Still more honorable was the inscription on the cenotaph at Athens: "All Greece is the monument of Euripides; the Macedonian earth covers only his bones." Sophocles, who survived him, publicly mourned his loss. The most celebrated editions of Euripides are those of Paul Stephanus (Paris, 1602, 2 vols.), of Barnes (Cambridge, 1694, folio), of Musgrave (Oxford, 1778, 4 vols. 4to.), and of Morus and Beck (Leipsic, 1779-88, 4to.). The latest critical editions are by Matthiæ (Leipsic, 1813-20, 6 vols.); and by Bothe (Leipsic, 1825, sqq.). Valkenaer, Brunck, Porson, Markland, &c., have devoted themselves to the illustration of single tragedies. EUROPA, in mythology; the daughter of Agenor, king of the Phoenicians, and the nymph Mella, or Telephassa, and sister of Cadmus, whose name, signifying white, is said to have been given to the European continent, whose inhabitants are white. The fable relates, that one of Juno's attendants stole a paint-box from the toilet of her mistress, and gave it to Europa. Her native beauty, heightened by this means, won the love of Jupiter, who, in order to possess her, changed himself into a white bull, and appeared EUROPE; the smallest of the great divisions of our globe, but distinguished above the rest by the character of its population, the superior cultivation of the soil, and the flourishing condition of arts, sciences, industry and commerce, the multitude of large and well-built cities, and its power and influence over the other parts of the world. Of the origin of its name and its inhabitants, history furnishes no certain account. It is most probable, that the first inhabitants emigrated from Asia, the cradle of the human race. Greece was first peopled by the emigrants. In that country, about 1400 years before our era, grew up the Hellenes, who soon outstripped the civilization of Asia. The most flourishing period of that nation, commonly called the Greeks, was about 300 B. C. Equally distinguished in action and speculation, adorned by the arts and sciences, rich in the noblest productions of cultivated minds, it will be, as long as civilization endures, an object of admiration, and its remains the foundation of our knowledge and taste. But with the dissolution of Alexander's empire, which had been raised on the ruins of Grecian freedom, Greece sunk into insignificance. At the same time, another nation was rising in Italy, the Romans, who appeared, indeed, at an earlier period, but made no figure in history till they had become masters of Italy, and had proved victorious in their struggle with the Carthaginians. From that period, their power began to extend over all Europe. They subdued the divided Greeks, and transplanted their arts and refinement to the Italian soil. By the progress of the Roman arms, Spain, Portugal, France, the coast of England, Belgium, Helvetia, the part of Germany between the Danube and the Alps, the Hungarian provinces (then called Pannonia, Illyria and Dacia), became known, and received the Roman manners, language and refinement. Agriculture was introduced, and flourishing cities rose The among the wandering nomades. Christian religion, which spread throughout the wide Roman empire, was also a powerful instrument in the civilization of most of the European nations. Germany alone resisted the overwhelming power of Rome, and thereby prevented the spreading of Roman civilization in the north of Europe, which still remained unknown in history. With the fall of the Roman empire, occasioned chiefly by its separation into the Eastern and Western empires, a great change in the political constitution of Europe was produced, by the universal emigration of the northern nations. These nations poured down upon the beautiful and cultivated countries of the Roman empire, now in the weakness of decline, and Roman art and science were obliged to give place to the barbarity, the deep ignorance and superstition of the middle ages. The Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in Italy, the Franks in France, the Visigoths in Spain, and the Anglo-Saxons in South Britain, reducing the inhabitants to subjection, or becoming incorporated with them. The empire of the Franks was enlarged, under Charlemagne, to such an extent,_ that the kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy, Burgundy, Lorraine and Navarre were afterwards formed out of it. About this time, the northern and eastern nations of Europe began to exert an influence in the affairs of the world. The Slavi, or Sclavonians, founded kingdoms in Bohemia, Poland, Russia, and the north of Germany; the Magyarians appeared in Hungary, and the Normans agitated all Europe. The establishment of a hierarchy was now undertaken by the popes, and finally carried to its completion by Gregory VII and Innocent III. (See Empire.) Their power was increased by the crusades. Nevertheless, this struggle between Asia and Europe had the effect of forming a middle class, of leading the peasant gradually to throw off the chains of bondage, and of introducing the arts and sciences through the Arabs and Greeks into Europe. The revival of letters, by the Greeks fleeing from Constantinople, gave an entirely new impulse to Europe. The establishment of universities, the invention of printing, and the reformation, served to cherish and develope these seeds of improvement. The feudal contests, the struggle of privileges, led eventually to the acknowledgment and establishment of the rights of the individual. (See City, Corporation, and Estates.) Out of the chaos of the middle ages, arose the EUROPE. States of Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, England, Scotland, Switzerland, the Italian powers, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Russia. By the capture of Constantinople (1453), the Turks, with their fanatical military despotism, became a European power. Austria, Holland, Prussia and Sardinia were also added to the number of European states; and Russia, from the time of Peter I, was changed from an Asiatic into a European empire. The attempts of Charles V and Louis XIV to become masters of Europe failed; but, in our own times, Napoleon conceived the project of forming, from the European states, a universal monarchy, and pursued it for 10 years. Since the formation of the states of Europe, the following have disappeared from the list of independent powers: Hungary, Poland, the German empire, Scotland, Bohemia, Venice, Genoa, and Milan. The following have been added: the states of the German confederacy, the Italian states, the republic of the Ionian islands, and that of Cracow. A natural consequence of the general diffusion of intellectual cultivation, and the decay of the feudal system, has been the gradual developement of the ideas of equal right and individual liberty; bloody struggles have naturally ensued between the adherents of the new and old opinions, and Europe is still convulsed by them. (See Feudal System, Napoleon, &c.)-Europe is washed on three sides by the sea, which is called by different names, and belongs either to the Northern Arctic or the Atlantic ocean. A narrow strait of the Mediterranean separates it from Africa. On the east, alone, it joins the main land, being there separated from Asia by an imaginary line. Europe is situated in the northern frozen and the northern temperate zones, between 10° and 63° east longitude, and 36° and 71° north latitude. Including the islands, which contain about 317,000 square miles, the whole extent of Europe amounts to about 3,250,000 square miles, of which Russia comprises nearly one half. The greatest length, from cape St. Vincent, in Portugal, to the northern extremity of the eastern boundary, at Waygatt's straits, is about 3500 miles. The greatest breadth, from cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the North Cape, in Norway, is about 2500 miles. Europe is remarkably well watered, although its rivers have not so long a course, nor such large cataracts, as those in other parts of the globe, particularly in America. The 605 On principal rivers are the Ebro, the Rhone |