slightly ascending at the extremity; the might more than counterbalance their nostrils are placed on the base of the bill, mischief.* Like most of their tribe, raand are patulous, though covered by the vens have a considerable talent for imiincumbent feathers; the tongue is short, tating sounds, and may be taught to procartilaginous, acute and bifid at tip; the nounce words with remarkable distincttarsus scarcely exceeds the middle toe in ness. When domesticated, they become length; the toes are separated almost to very bold and impudent, fearless of dogs the base, and the middle one is the longest; or cats, and fighting fiercely with them the nails are moderate, pointed, hollow when provoked: sometimes, indeed, their beneath, and sharp-edged, the hind one insolence renders them dangerous inmates, being generally longest; the wings are as they will wound children, and even subelongated, acute, the first primary short, grown persons, with their powerful bill. third or fourth longest; the tail consists of They also participate in the disposition twelve feathers. Four species of this common to most of their fraternity, to genus, as at present restricted, are found steal and hide pieces of money, plate, and in North America-the raven (C. corax); other shining objects, which cannot be of the crow (C. corone); fish-crow (C. ossi- the slightest use to the purloiner. The fragus); and Clark's crow (C. columbia- raven is a model of conjugal fidelity, havnus). These and other members of the ing but one female, to whom he remains genus are very extensively spread over attached, most probably, for life. Obserthe globe, and are almost equally distin- vations were made on one pair by lord guished for their remarkable sagacity, and Ross, during 30 years, and there can be the amount of mischief which they occa- but little doubt, that the union was only Their nests are sion where they are very numerous. The interrupted by death. raven is by no means common in the Mid- commonly placed in chinks of rocks, lofty dle States of the Union, but is found in old walls, or the tops of tall, insulated considerable numbers, in the vicinity of trees, and are made externally of roots the northern lakes, and the interior of the and branches of shrubs; a second layer is Union. This is the largest species of its then formed of animal bones, or other hard tribe, very little inferior in size to a com- materials, and this is covered with a bed mon cock, being 26 inches in length, and of soft grass or moss. About the month more than 3 feet from the tip of one wing of March, the female lays 5 or 6 paleto that of the other. The plumage is of a green and bluish eggs, speckled with very very glossy black, with some reflections numerous spots and touches of a darker of bluish purple on the back. The female color. The incubation continues for 20 is less purely black than the male, and a days, and both parents participate in it. little smaller. The raven, when on the The male also defends the nest courageground, marches at a grave and stately ously against the approach of hawks and pace: his favorite haunts are the vast soli- other birds of prey, and provides for the tudes of rocks and forests, whence he sel- subsistence of his companion. The young dom emerges except called by hunger, remain with the parents throughout the and then never in large flocks, like the summer succeeding their hatching, and, crows. The ordinary food of the raven, when able to provide for themselves, are and that which he prefers, is putrefying sent off to establish new colonies clseanimal matter, which this bird discovers, where. The flight of the raven is very by the acuteness of his sense of smelling, lofty, and its power of wing great, so that at great distances, and flies to the feast it is able to pass over immense spaces in a with unerring precision. When carrion short time. Few birds are more numerous is not attainable, the raven feeds on various and annoying to the farmers of the Atlanfruits, insects, dead fish, &c. Judging by Judging by tic States than the common crow (C. cothe habits of the crow and other kindred rone), which, throughout a considerable species, there is no question but the rapart of the year, collects in astonishingly ven, when pressed by hunger, will kill large flocks, and makes destructive descents small birds or other animals coming with- upon newly-planted maize and other grain. in its reach. They have been known to In this species, it seems as if all the evil pluck the eyes out of the heads of lambs propensities of the race were united and and sick animals unable to drive them augmented. Exceedingly cunning in deaway. Birds so voracious and destructive cannot be regarded otherwise than injurious in a poor country, though in a rich one, their services, as scavengers and destroyers of the larves of noxious insects, * In England, the rook (C. frugilegus) is not allowed to be killed, and a large rookery is considered a valuable appendage to an estate. The young are obtained from the nest, and considered very fine for the table. CROW. tecting every contrivance intended for their 57 to be obliged to keep several persons continually on guard in the fields. When the corn has shot up an inch or two above the surface, a host of these black-coated plunderers invade the fields, and, having posted sentinels in several commanding situations, march regularly along the cornrows, drawing up the grain, pulling skilfully by the shoot, and then swallowing the germinating corn. Among the most successful experiments made to prevent the crows from doing this mischief is that of coating the seed corn with a mixture of tar, oil, and a small quantity of slacked lime, in powder. The ingredients being mixed in a tub, the seed corn is stirred in it until each grain receives a thorough coating of the mixture. This preparation, as it necessarily keeps the grain from being readily affected by moisture, is found to retard the germination about three days. In the instance we witnessed of the trial of this preventive, it was fully successful; for, although the field was daily visited by hosts of crows, they were content with pulling up enough corn, in various places, to be satisfied that it was, throughout, equally unpalatable. During their breeding season, which is in the spring months, the flocks spread over a great extent of country, and build their nests of small sticks, lined with grass, in lofty trees, choosing the most remote and difficult of approach. The young, generally, are two in number, and, until fully fledged, are most solicitously protected by their parents. When the young crows first begin to receive lessons in flying, nothing is more remarkable and affecting than the efforts made to preserve them, by the parents, when a gunner approaches the vicinity. Every artifice is employed to call attention away from the young, which seem to comprehend the directions or calls of their parents, and remain perfectly silent and motionless. In the mean while, the father and mother fly towards the gunner, taking care not to remain an instant in one place, and, by the most vociferous outcries, deprecate his cruelty. These efforts being continued, their voluntary exposure, and the eagerness with which they fly about a particular spot, are almost always successful in withdrawing the sportsman from the place where the young actually are. As soon as they have succeeded in leading him to a sufficient distance, they cease their accents of distress, fly a little farther from their young, and from a lofty perch, which enables them to watch all around, utter an orcasional cry, which one may readily im agine to be intended for the direction and encouragement of their offspring. The most successful mode of destroying crows, is that of invading them in their extensive dormitories during the night. When they have selected a pine thicket, or other dense piece of wood, for a roosting place, they repair thither with great regularity. Every evening, vast flocks come sailing to the retreat, and the trees are literally covered and bowed down. When the state of Maryland received crow scalps in payment of taxes, at three cents each, parties were frequently made to attack the crow roosts. Gunners were stationed at various parts, surrounding the roosts, and all those of one division fired at once; the slaughter was necessarily dreadful, and those remaining unhurt, bewildered by the darkness, the flashing and report of the guns, and the distressing cries of their companions, flew but to a little distance, and settled near another party of gunners. As soon as they were fairly at rest, the same tragedy was reacted and repeated, until the approach of day or the fatigue of their destroyers caused a cessation. The wounded were then despatched by knocking them on the head or wringing their necks, and the bill, with so much of the skull as passed for a scalp, was cut off and strung for the payment of the taxgatherer. The poor people, who had no taxes to pay, disposed of their crow scalps to the store-keepers, who purchased them at rather a lower rate. This premium has long been discontinued, and the number of these marauders is, in many parts of that state, quite large enough to require its reëstablishinent. CROWN. In the early ages, when men were fond of expressing all their feelings by outward signs, a wreath of flowers or leaves was naturally one of the first emblems of honor or of joy. Such was the ornament of the priest in the performance of sacrifice, of the hero on his return from victory, of the bride at her nuptials, and of the guests at a feast. The ancient mythology, which gave every thing a distinct beginning and a poetical origin, ascribes the invention of wreaths to Prometheus, who imitated, with flowers, the fetters which he had borne for his love to mankind, whom he had created. According to Pliny, wreaths were first made of ivy, and Bacchus first wore them. In process of time, they were made of very different materials. Those worn by the Greeks at feasts in honor of a divinity, were made of the flowers of the plant consecrated to the god. Wreaths of roses afterwards became very common. In some cases, wreaths were even made of wool. Wreaths of ivy and amethyst were worn, by the Greeks, on the head, neck and breast, at entertainments, with a view to prevent drunkenness. Mnesitheus and Callimachus, two Greek physicians, wrote entire books on wreaths, and their medical virtues. Corpses were covered with wreaths and green branches. Lovers adorned with wreaths and flowers the doors of their mistresses, and even captives, who were to be sold as slaves, wore wreaths; hence the phrase sub corona venire or vendere. The beasts sacrificed to the gods were also crowned. Wreaths, in process of time, were made of metal, in imitation of flowers, or of the fillet which the priest wore round his head when he sacrificed, which was called diádnua. This attribute of distinction was early adopted by the kings, when they united in their persons the temporal and spiritual power. Among the various crowns and wreaths in use among the Greeks and Romans, were the following: Corona agonothetarum; the reward of the victor in the great gymnastic games. Corona aurea (the golden crown); the reward of remarkable bravery. Corona castrensis; given to him who first entered the camp of the enemy. Corona civica (see Civic Crown); one of the highest military rewards. It was given to him who had saved the life of a citizen. Corona convivalis; the wreath worn at feasts. Corona muralis; given by the general to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's wall. Corona natalitia; a wreath which parents hung up before the door at the birth of a child. It was made of olive-branches if the child was a boy, and of wool if a girl. Corona navalis, the next in rank after the civic crown, was given to him who first boarded and took an enemy's vessel. Corona nuptialis; a crown or wreath worn by brides. The bridegroom, also, and his relations, on the day of the wedding, adorned themselves with wreaths. At first, the corona nuptialis was of flowers; afterwards, of gold or silver and precious stones. Corona obsidionalis; a reward given to him who delivered a besieged town, or a blockaded army. It was one of the highest military honors, and very seldom obtained. It was made of grass; if possible, of such as grew on the delivered place. Corona triumphalis; a wreath of laurel CROWN-CROWN OFFICE. which was given, by the army, to the imperator. He wore it on his head at the celebration of his triumph. Another crown of gold, the material of which (coronarium aurum) was furnished by the conquered cities, was carried over the head of the general. The wreaths, conferred at the great games of Greece, were of different kinds; at the Olympic games, of wild olive; at the Pythian games, of laurel; at the Nemean games, first of olive, then of parsley; at the Isthmian games, a wreath of pine leaves, afterwards of parsley; subsequently pine leaves were resumed. 59 legislative, judicial, &c. Thus the crown domains are distinguished from the state or national domains. In France, a difference is even made between the crown domains and the private domains of the king; the former are inalienable, and belong to the reigning monarch, whilst the second may be treated like any other private property. The distinction between crown and state, of course, does not exist in perfectly arbitrary governments.-Crownofficers are certain officers at the courts of European sovereigns. Formerly, when the different branches of government were not accurately defined, they were often, or generally, also state officers, as in the old German empire, and still in Hungary. The offices were generally hereditary; but, of late years, they are almost exclusively attached to the court, the title, in a few cases, being connected with military dignities, as, for instance, in France, where civil and military grand officers of the crown have always existed. (See Dignitaries.) Crown, in commerce; a common name for coins of several nations, which are about the value of a dollar. (See Coins, Table of.) Crown, in an ecclesiastical sense, is used for the tonsure, the shaven spot on the head of the Roman Catholic priests, where they received the ointment of consecration. (See Tonsure.) In the middle ages, crowns became exclusively appropriated to the royal and imperial dignity; the coronets of nobles were only borne in their coats of arms. (See Coronet, also Tiara.) From the Jewish king being called, in the Scriptures, the anointed of the Lord, a kind of religious mystery and awe became attached to crowned heads, which, in most countries, continues to the present day, though history has shown us abundantly that crowns often cover the heads of very weak or very wicked individuals, and that there is no great mystery about their origin; some having been obtained by purchase, some by crime, some by grants from a more powerful prince, some by contract, some by choice, but, on the whole, comparatively few in an honest way. The iron CROWN GLASS, the best kind of wincrown of Lombardy, preserved at Monza, dow-glass, the hardest and most colorless, in the territory of Milan, is a golden crown is made almost entirely of sand and alset with precious stones, with which in kali and a little lime, without lead or former times the Lombard kings were any metallic oxide, except a very small crowned, and, at a later period, the Ro- quantity of manganese, and sometimes of man-German emperors, when they wished cobalt. Crown glass is used, in connexto manifest their claims as kings of Lom- ion with flint glass, for dioptric instrubardy. An iron circle, made, according to ments, in order to destroy the disagreeable the legend, out of a nail of Christ's cross, effect of the aberration of colors. Both which is fixed inside, gave rise to the kinds of glass are now made, in the highnaine. Agilulf, king of Lombardy, was est perfection, in Benedictbeurn (q. v.), the first person crowned with it (in 590). where Reichenbach's famous manufactory Charlemagne was crowned with it in 774. of optical instruments is situated. Napoleon put it on his head in 1805, and established the order of the iron crown. In 1815, when Austria established the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the emperor admitted the order of the iron crown among those of the Austrian empire.Crown is used, figuratively, for the royal power, in contradistinction either to the person of the monarch, or to the body of the nation, with its representatives, interests, &c. Thus, in modern times, the word crown is used, on the European continent, to express the rights and prerogatives of the monarch considered as a part of the state, which includes all powers the CROWN OFFICE. The court of king's bench is divided into the plea side and the crown side. In the plea side, it takes cognizance of civil causes; in the crown side, it takes cognizance of criminal causes, and is thereupon called the crown of fice. In the crown office are exhibited informations in the name of the king, of which there are two kinds: 1. those which are truly the king's own suits, and filed, ex officio, by his own immediate officer, the attorney-general; 2. those in which, though the king is the nominal prosecutor, yet some private person, as a common informer, is the real one: these CRUSADES. alry.) The pope considered the invasion VOL. IV. 61 ducted, regular army, however, of 80,000 |