withstanding a large portion of the inhabitants were in servitude; for the slaves, in these cases, were not considered as belonging to the state, were not members of the political society. Such an anomalous form of government as existed in Algiers, where a tribe of soldiers, kept up by perpetual recruits from abroad, and excluding their own children from any share in their political privileges, elected their ruler, and tyrannised over the other inhabitants of the country, without allowing them any rights (although they did not actually treat them as slaves, at least not as the property of individuals), such a government does not fall under any one of the established divisions, and, in fact, can hardly be regarded in a different light from an association of robbers. That condition of government mentioned under e forms the subject of this article. Estates are those political bodies which partake, either directly or by representation, in the government: they are different from corporations (q. v.), which very often had, and still have, certain political privileges. Estates are of Teutonic origin, being found only in countries occupied by the descendants of Teutonic tribes. They are to be considered as a consequence of the feudal system, which originated from certain customs prevalent among the Germans, and from their conquests. (See Feudal System.) From the feudal system sprang the modern hereditary nobles-a privileged body, partaking essentially in, or, in some instances, chiefly forming the government. (See Nobility.) Bondage became gradually established—an institution, in many cases, of much more recent date than those who profit by it maintain. (See Villenage.) At the same time that the high nobility began to constitute a distinct and hereditary class (which is of much later date than the origin of feudalism), the high clergy, in many countries, began to participate in the government as a body, which they were, in those barbarous times, as much entitled to do as the warlike nobility; since they were the only members of society with whom the little knowledge which had survived the fearful storms of the dark ages had taken refuge. More or less distinct from each other, and from the lower orders of their respective classes, the high nobility and clergy continued to form the estates, which, together with the prince, constituted the general government so far as any general government can be said to have existed, when every feudal lord was, in most respects, entirely independent, and the higher clergy were almost always

feudal lords, so that a conflict of innumerable interests, privileges and liberties prevented any general and orderly administration of government and justice. "That prodigious fabric (as Hume calls it), for several centuries, preserved such a mixture of liberty and oppression, order and anarchy, stability and revolution, as was never experienced in any other age, or any other part of the world." But the time appeared when cities began to claim and assume political rights, the time to which we may apply, in respect of all Europe, what Spelman applies to England at the time of the Norman conquest, Novus seclorum nascitur ordo. It is to the cities that we owe the origin of the third estate, or citizens, from whom, through their contests with the other estates or estate (if the nobility and clergy were united), and through their greater number, which rendered a representation of them necessary, originated more general views of the administration of government and justice, more equitable laws, and more correct notions of individual liberty. To the historian, who sees, amid the conflicts of feudalism, the beginning of the political importance of the cities, it is like the first appearance of the rays of morning after a long and stormy night. (See Cities.) But the power of the other estates was too great; nor was it to be expected that the third estate should be in advance of the age: a general representation was not yet founded. The period from the downfall of the Roman empire to the establishment of the constitution of the U. States, may be called, by way of distinction, the time of privileges, hardly any part of the political system being established, or administered on general principles, or a well organized plan, but almost every thing being done by special privileges and grants; common rights arising from citizenship being hardly recognised, the individual enjoying only certain privileges, as a member of a favored class. The privileges of these three estates, arising from different causes, and acquired in different ways, were, of course, very different. However, the right to grant taxes was common to all, because taxes were at first considered as a mere gift to the prince, it being customary in all the Teutonic estates for the monarch to defray the expenses of government, particularly of war, on account of the large share of property which was every where set aside for him, as has been shown in the article Civil List. (See also Domain.) However, in many countries, the estates were not called together; in

others, their conduct rendered them very unpopular. Both their own incapacity and the power of the government rendered them, in most countries, either useless or obnoxious; and, in many countries, both the people and the government were equally desirous to abolish them, though for different reasons. The time of the French revolution approached, and views of general justice and legal equality became popular throughout Europe. Every reader knows that the system of the estates was abolished in France, and all the countries where the French obtained an ascendency in the new formation, or the reformation of governments. Since the downfall of Napoleon, many governments have reestablished the estates, or endeavored to satisfy the spirit of the age, which calls for a secure individual liberty, by a new organization of them. This subject has been particularly treated in the article Constitution. (q. v.) In Sweden, there is a fourth estate-that of the crown peasants. Circumstances have changed so entirely, civilization has so nearly equalised the different orders, the interests of men have become so generalized, that the institution of estates has become unsuited to the wants of the age: they have had their time, and have become obsolete. They are directly contrary to the spirit of our age, as is the whole feudal system, and can only be considered as remnants of former times, forms from which the spirit has long since departed. They serve at present only to frustrate the most just and reasonable demand of society-individual liberty, protected by equal laws and an equal representation.

ESTE; one of the most ancient and illustrious families of Italy. Muratori traces its origin to those petty princes who governed Tuscany in the time of the Carlovingians (10th century). In later times, they received from the emperors several districts and counties, to be held as fiefs of the empire, viz. Este, Rovigo, Montagnana, Casal Maggiore, Pontremoli and Obertenga, with the title of marquis. Of this family was Guelfo IV, who, having received the investiture of the duchy of Bavaria, founded the house of Brunswick, which, from this circumstance, was called the Estensian Guelf. During the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, the history of the house of Este is connected with the vicissitudes of the other ruling families and free states of Upper Italy. In the contests between the Guelfs and Ghibelines, the marquises of Este, as leaders of the Guelf party, acquired the territories of Ferrara and

587

Modena, notwithstanding many reverses. This house was much distinguished for its patronage of the arts and sciences. Nicolas II (died 1388) first made the court of Ferrara the seat of refinement and taste. The reign of Nicolas III (died 1441) was still more brilliant. He opened, in 1402, the university of Ferrara, founded by his father, Albert, and which had been suppressed during his minority; he also founded that of Parma. His liberality attracted the most distinguished men of the age, among whom were Guarini of Verona, the ancestor of the celebrated poet, and Giovanni Aurispa. He transmitted his love of literature to his sons, Lionel and Borso, who endeavored to render Ferrara the country of scholars and poets. The reign of Lionel was distinguished neither by conquests nor other great political occurrences; but no prince of the house of Este was more beloved by his contemporaries for his amiable disposition, the charms of his wit, and the elegance of his manners. He encouraged industry and commerce, the arts and sciences, by every method, and was himself a model of eloquence in the Latin and Italian languages. He corresponded with the most distinguished men of Italy, and contributed more than any prince of his time to restore ancient literature to that splendor which rendered the 16th century so illustrious. Under his brother and successor, Borso, (died 1471), agriculture, commerce, and all the arts of peace, were in a flourishing condition. Borso was fond of pomp, but, as he neither maintained fortresses nor armies, his expenditures did not exhaust his finances. emperor Frederic III, enchanted with his reception by Borso, on his passage through Ferrara, conferred on him the title of duke of Modena and Reggio. Borso also obtained from the pope, Pius V, the duchy of Ferrara, which he held as a fief of the church. His successor, Ercole I (died 1505), suffered much from the Venetians and their allies, who wished to deprive the house of Este of its territories; but Milan, Florence and Naples took arms in his defence, and a general war was the consequence. After concluding a disadvantageous peace in 1484, Ercole maintained a neutrality for 21 years, although important revolutions took place in Italy. During this period, his subjects enjoyed all the blessings of peace, and his capital was distinguished for elegauce and refinement. Boiardo, count of Scandiano, the celebrated author of Orlando Innamorato, was his friend and minister. Ariosto, yet

The

very young, already enjoyed the ducal favor, and the court of Ferrara was adorned by the most celebrated geniuses of the period. His son, Alfonso I (died 1534), succeeded him. His second wife was the famous Lucretia Borgia, whose brilliant talents and love of literature contributed in some measure to obliterate the infamy of her early years. Ariosto was in the service of Alfonso's brother, the cardinal Ippolito, a patron by no means worthy of such a poet. His sacred office could not restrain him from violence and crime; and he caused the eyes of his brother Julius, his rival in the affections of a lady, to be put out, because she had praised their beauty. Alfonso suffered this barbarous act, at which all Ferrara was indignant, to go unpunished; but the injured Julius and his brother Ferdinand entered into a conspiracy to dethrone him, for the purpose of rendering his revenge on Ippolito more sure. The conspiracy was detected, and the punishment of the two brothers was commuted into perpetual imprisonment, at the moment when the axe was suspended over their heads. Alfonso also displayed great military talents. He entered into the league of Cambray, in 1509. The Venetians, under Angelo Trevisani, appeared at the mouth of the Po, and spread terror through the whole province of Ferrara. He enclosed this fleet, which ascended the river, within the fire of his batteries constructed on both banks, captured part, and burnt the rest: this victory was commemorated by the most celebrated Italian poets. Pope Julius II abandoned the league of Cambray, and joined the Venetians; he laid Alfonso, whom he could not persuade to follow his example, under an interdict, and declared all his papal fiefs forfeited. By this measure of Julius, Alfonso lost Modena, and was deserted by his allies. The French, however, continued in their alliance with hin, and he contributed to the victory which they gained at Ravenna in 1512. But, the French being soon after obliged to leave Italy, Alfonso stood alone. Meanwhile Julius died; but his successor, Leo X, refused to restore to Alfonso the cities of Modena and Reggio, which Francis I, who favored the house of Este, had obliged him to promise. The papal court even attempted the assassination of the duke, by the captain of his guard. Alfonso, thus menaced on all sides, was preparing to defend himself, when the death of Leo X (1521) delivered the house of Este from the impending ruin. Adrian

VI revoked the censures of the church; but Clement VII, his successor, seemed to have inherited the hatred of his uncle Leo; he kept Alfonso out of possession of Modena, and even endeavored to deprive him of his other states. Soon afterwards, the capture of Rome (1527) enabled the emperor Charles V to restore to him his ancient possessions, and to confirm the claims of the house of Este. Alfonso excelled all the Italian princes of his time, in uniting military glory with political talents; none of them was surrounded by more distinguished men, and none has been celebrated by nobler poets; among whom Ariosto is the most illustrious. His successor, Ercole II (died 1559), was attached to Charles V, who, by his great preponderance, subjected all Italy to his influence. His brother Ippolito, at Rome, on the contrary, was attached to the French interest. This cardinal, who built the splendid villa d'Este, at Tivoli, was the most munificent patron of the arts and sciences of that age. Alfonso II (died 1597) inherited, it is true, from his ancestors, a love of letters, but a still greater fondness for pomp and luxury. His disputes with the grand-duke of Tuscany, regarding the precedency, and his efforts to obtain the crown of Poland, which involved him in great expense, occupied his whole political career. His finances were exhausted, and his subjects burdened with taxes. The first poets, and most distinguished men of Italy, continued, however, to adorn his court; but the persecutions of Tasso suggest only melancholy or disgraceful recollections for the house of Este. The seven years which the poet passed in a mad-house, either for having dared to love the princess Leonora, sister of the duke, or because, in the excess of his passion, he had so far forgot himself as to offend the pride of his sovereign, bear witness to the cruelty of Alfonso. Although he was married three times, he was childless; and he appointed his cousin Cæsar (died 1628), son of a natural son of Alfonso I, his successor. On Caesar's accession to the dukedom, pope Clement VIII declared the choice to have been illegal, and all the papal fiefs held by the house of Este to have reverted to the church. Cæsar possessed so little firmness of character, that he immediately yielded to the menaces and armies of the pope, and surrendered Ferrara, together with the other ecclesiastical fiefs. Fortunately, the emperor did not dispute his succession to the imperial fiefs; he remained in possession of Modena and

590

votion. She became the mistress of the chivalric monarch, who never loved any other woman so passionately. To escape the severe scrutiny of her father, Henry married her to a nobleman named Damerval, of Liancourt; but, says Sully, il sut empêcher la consommation du mariage, and subsequently dissolved the marriage, on the ground of Damerval's impotency, although this nobleman had had 14 children by a former wife. Henry intended to raise Gabrielle to the throne as his lawful wife. For this purpose, he not only procured a divorce from Margaret of Valois, but also raised the county of Beaufort to a duchy, which he bestowed on Gabrielle, thus giving her a high rank at court. This design was strongly opposed by Sully, who often represented to the monarch the bad consequences of such a measure. Gabrielle, therefore, became his bitter enemy, and, instigated by the enemies of the minister, she once so far forgot herself as to urge the king to_discharge him. Henry's reply was, "By God, madam, if I must lose one of you, I would rather give up ten mistresses like you, than one servant like him." So ardent, however, was his passion for Gabrielle, that he once wrote to her in a moment of danger, "If I am conquered, you know me too well to believe that I shall flee. My last thought shall be God's, my last but one yours." Notwithstanding the determination of the king, and the wishes of Gabrielle, their marriage never took place. Just before Easter, in 1599, when negotiations were already in train for the divorce of the king, she retired from court, by the advice of René Bénoit, the king's confessor, and went to Paris to spend Passion week. On Maundy Thursday, having eaten an orange after dinner, she was suddenly scized with convulsions, which distorted her beautiful countenance, and, on Saturday, she died in the most excruciating torments. Apoplexy, with convulsions, was the cause assigned for her death; but no one can doubt that she was poisoned. The king's grief for her loss was excessive; and, what is seldom the case, the royal mistress was universally lamented. Her amiable disposition, the gentleness of her character, and the modesty which prevented her from meddling with public affairs, won her general favor. She had three children by the king, Cæsar and Alexander, afterwards dukes of Vendome, and a daughter, Catharine Henrietta, afterwards the wife of the duke of Elbeuf. Her biography, which appeared some years ago, in France, is accompanied by

an interesting correspondence between Gabrielle and her royal lover.

ESTRÉES, Louis César (duc d'), marshal of France, and minister of state, born at Paris, in 1695. He fought against the Spaniards, under the duke of Berwick, and distinguished himself so much that he was raised to the rank of field-marshal, and inspector-general of the cavalry. In the war of 1741, he obtained the confidence of marshal Saxe, by the passage of the Maine at Seligenstadt, his conduct at the battle of Fontenoy, and the sieges of Mons and Charleroi. In 1756, he received the baton of marshal of France, and appeared in Germany at the head of 100,000 men. His audience with Louis XIV, closed with these words: "By the 1st of July, I shall have driven the enemy beyond the Weser, and shall be preparing to enter Hanover." He kept his word, and gained a decisive victory over the duke of Cumberland at Hastenbeck. The Hanoverians were preparing to leave the electorate, when the marshal was recalled by court intrigues, and succeeded by Richelieu. After the defeat at Minden, he was sent to Giesen, where he assumed no command, but was content to assist Contades with his advice. At the close of the war, he was created duke. He died 1771, without issue. He merited his dignities by his services, and was not less esteemed as a citizen than as a soldier.

ESTREMADURA; the name of a Spanish and a Portuguese province. The Spanish province of

Estremadura is bounded N. by Leon and Old Castile, E. by New Castile, S. by Andalusia, and W. by Portugal; about 90 miles each way. It formerly made part of Portugal, but, being separated from that country, it is sometimes called Estremadura of Castile. The country is mountainous, and the air in summer is exceedingly hot, wholesome to the natives, but insupportable to strangers. Spring water is scarce, and the inhabitants are compelled to use principally that of ponds. The soil is fertile in grain, grapes, and other fruits. Cattle and fine wool constitute their principal commerce. The principal towns are Badajoz, Merida, Truxillo, Xerez de los Caballeros, Ellerena, Coria, and Placentia. Population in 1797, 428,393. Square miles, 14,478. This country has furnished excellent generals to Spain.

Estremadura, the province of Portugal, is bounded N. by the province of Beira, E. and S. by Alentejo, and W. by the