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good English; and this disproportion between two nations, closely united as they are by a regular and established intercourse, must be principally caused by the strangely whimsical pronunciation of the anguage of the English." (vol. i, p. 143.) "Yet, notwithstanding the indistinctness of their vowels, and their masses of consonants, they lay claim to harmony of language; and we will allow it to them, if, in return, they will admit that this harmoay can be felt by themselves alone. They have, too, some advantages which, I think, we cannot deny them. Inversion of language is allowed in their poetry almost to as great an extent as in Italian, that is, much less than in Latin and Greek. Their constructions and poetical forms are bolder, and yet more manageable than ours. They can also employ rhyme, or not, as they please, and can indulge more than we can in the formation of new words." Observations of this kind must, however, be taken with much allowance. Another French writer, cited by Mr. Mitford in his Harmony of the English Language, says "The English speak so much between their teeth, that the French cannot understand them;" and adds—“ l'Anglois est la seule langue pour laquelle il ne faut pas une langue. "It is impossible (says Mr. Mitford) not to acknowledge that there is much justice in this imputation." In our article Americanism (q. v.), we directed the reader's attention to the important fact, that England and the U. States of America offer the first instance in history of two great, independent and active nations, having a common language, but situated at a great listance from each other, and daily developing new and characteristic features. These relations must, sooner or later, exert a powerful influence upon the common language; for no language is so stable as not to undergo continual changes, if spoken by a people in the full vigor of social and political life. This state of things has already produced some effect on the English language, as we have observed in that article. But, from the deep and natural interest felt by Americans in the literature of England, which must be a part of their own as long as Shakspeare and Milton shall live in their works, the effect has hitherto been inconsiderable, and not greater than we should expect from the mere circumstance of so different and remote local situations. The most material difference, probably, has been in the pronunciation of the lan

guage, which, however important in our daily conversation, is of secondary importance in relation to the literature and written language of the two countries. It has often been observed by English travellers and others, that the pronunciation of the U. States is far more uniform than that of England; and so nearly alike every where, that the people of any one town or district are perfectly understood in every other part of the country; which is not the case in England. When considered more minutely, however, there has for a long time existed a marked distinction between the pronunciation of the New England and Southern States. In New England, it is supposed by some, that the pronunciation has been, till lately, very nearly what it was in the mother country a century ago or more. However this may be, it is a well-known fact that the New England pronunciation has been materially changed since the publication and general use of Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, or within the last thirty years. That which prevailed before that period, was probably much influenced by the very general use of a small dictionary published by Perry. (See Worcester's edit, of Johnson, Pref., p. ix.) The pronunciation of some of the Southern and Middle States was more affected by the instruction of Scottish and Irish teachers, who, besides peculiarities of pronunciation, have taught the people of these states to confound the established idiomatic distinction between shall and will, and should and would.-The orthography of our language has undergone no material change in the U. States, it being the general inclination to follow that of the best English writers of the age. But English orthography is so irregular, particularly in the use of the vowels, as to make our language more difficult than any other to the European nations. The signs of the sounds are so inconstant, that they do not, when first heard by a foreigner, impress themselves on the memory so distinctly as those of the other European languages do, and, of course, cannot be so To easily remembered for future use. this embarrassment is to be added our custom of throwing back the accent to the first syllables of words, which necessarily produces that hurried and indistinct utterance, of which foreigners so justly complain. We may here add a general remark or two of an intelligent German, who has had much experience in writing English, and whose observations are confirmed by our own experience, so far as

we have had occasion to consider this subject. The English language is peculiarly adapted to exact discussions of all practical matters in society, and to political inquiries. It has also more force than the European languages generally, in descriptive writing, whether prose or poetry; and in poetry, it has more power in epic than in lyric composition; the latter requiring that more metaphysical character of language which is found in the highest degree, probably, in the German. The scholars of Germany, who have studied our language more thoroughly than any other nation has done, remark, that English is much less abstract than their own; and that we admit new formations of words much more reluctantly and priciously than the Germans do. It is also to be observed, that we adopt new terms from the French, with more facility than from the German, notwithstanding the close affinity of the latter to our own language. This tendency to introduce Gallicisms led doctor Johnson to apprehend, that, unless some check were interposed, the English nation would one day "be reduced to babble a dialect of France." (For further information respecting the English language, see the article AngloSaxon. For further information respect ing English history, see Great Britain.)

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ENGLAND, LITTLE, beyond Wales, is a portion of country lying along the southwestern coast of South Wales, remarkable for being inhabited by the descendants of a colony of Flemings, who came over from Flanders under king Henry I.

ENGLAND, NEW; the name of the Northeastern States of the North American Union; bounded N. by Canada, E. by New Brunswick and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic and Long Island sound, and W. by New York. This division comprises the states of Maine, Vermont, New Hamp shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Lon. 66° 49′ to 73° 15′ W.; lat. 41° to 48° 12′ N. Population in 1810, 1,271,974; in 1820, 1,659,793. For its population, according to the census of 1830, now in progress, see the article United States. This census will probably give a population of about two millions in New England, of whom three fourths are farmers. The remainder are engaged in commerce, manufactures, &c. Some of the farmers are, of course, partly engaged in commerce also. The face of the country is generally uneven, and agreeably diversified. A part of it is mountainous. The soil is various, from barren sand to the richest clays and loans. It is generally 44

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better fitted for grazing than tillage. The most important production is grass. Beef, mutton, pork, butter and cheese are abundant. Indian corn, rye, wheat, barley and oats are extensively cultivated. New England is the most populous part of the U. States. The inhabitants are mostly of English descent. There is no country in the world where education is so generally diffused among all classes of people. It is the most manufacturing part of North America. (See, among other articles, Cotton Manufacture.) The statement of the secretary of the treasury, of the commerce of the U. States for the year ending Sept. 30, 1829, gives the following results:

once

The inhabitants of New England have several peculiarities, distinguishing them from the inhabitants of the other U. States, owing to their descent from the Puritans, and other causes. In the other states, they are familiarly called Yankees (q. v.), which name, in Europe, is given to the citizens of all the U. States. The Notions of a Travelling Bachelor, by Mr. Cooper, contains some good remarks on New England. The name of New England was official. Thus a charter was granted to the first settlers at Salem, by the name of governor and company of Massachusetts bay, in New England." The country was at first called North Virginia; but after captain Smith had surveyed it, and presented the map to Charles I, then prince of Wales, he gave it the name of New England. Sebastian Cabot (q.v.) discovered the coast of this region, and Plymouth, then called New Plymouth, in Massachusetts, was the first settlement here. The first settlers landed Dec. 11 (old style), 1620. Before landing, they signed a solemn covenant, forming themselves into a body politic for the purpose of making equal laws for the general good. They were republicans before they landed, and have virtually. remained so ever since-a. circumstance always to be considered in comparing the American revolution with that of other countries. This republican spirit showed itself early at several periods. Charles II, after his restoration, sent commissioners to New England (in 1664) to inquire into and examine the state of the

colonies, and to reform the administration of affairs there. A report was made by the commissioners about 1665, which will be found in Hutchinson's Collection of State-Papers, &c., p. 412, &c., in which they give an account of the state of the colonies, and are particularly severe in their animadversions upon the colony of Massachusetts. Before that period, the judicial and other processes issued in some of the colonies of New England, at least in Massachusetts, had been in the name or under the authority of the colony, and not in the name of the king. The commissioners remark (p. 417), that "the colony of the Massachusetts was the last and the hardliest to use his majesty's name in the forms of justice."* They also added (p. 417), that they "visited all other colonies before this, hoping that the submission and condescension of the other colonies to his majesty's desires would have abated the refractoriness of this colony, which they much feared." "They (the Massachusetts colony) proclaimed by sound of trumpet, that the general court (of the colony) was the supremest judicatory in the province; that the commissioners pretending to hear appeals was a breach of their privileges granted to them by the king's royal father, and confirmed to them by his majesty's own letter, and that they should not permit it." (p. 418.) "They say that king Charles the First gave them power to make laws, and to execute them, and granted them a charter as a warrant against himself and his successors, and that so long as they pay the fifth part of all gold and silver ore, which they shall get, they shall be free to use the privileges granted them; and they are not obliged to the king, but by civility." (p. 420.) They further added-That "they (the Massachusetts colony) did solicit Cromwell, by one Mr. Winslow, to be declared a free state, and many times in their laws styling themselves this state, this • wealth,' and now believe themselves to be so." (p. 420.) They close by remarking, "Their way of government is commonwealth-like; their way of worship is rude, and called Congregational; they are zealous in it, for they persecute all other forms." (p. 422.) The declaration of the general court (of the colony) of their rights under the charter in 1661, strongly supports the views which the commissioners gave of the claims of Massachusetts. (1 Hutch. Hist. Mass. supplement, vol. 13, p. 529.) These documents abundantly prove how early

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* See 1 Hutchin. Hist. of Mass., 223, 233, note. Id. 452.

the colony aspired to substantial independence, and how slowly it allowed the interposition of the king in any of its internal concerns, and how jealous it was of every exercise of prerogative. A people so alive to their own rights, and so persevering in maintaining them, could not fail of being involved in disputes with the government of Great Britain from a very early period in their history. Down to the annulling of their first charter, and the grant of their new charter by William and Mary in 1692, there was scarcely any_harmony between the government in England and that in the Massachusetts colony. In 1643, four of the New England_colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Plymouth and New Haven, on account of the dangers from the Indians, from the Dutch at New York, and from the French in Canada and Acadia, entered into a league offensive and defensive. By the articles of this confederacy, each colony was to appoint two commissioners, who were to assemble alternately in the respective colonies, and were empowered to enact ordinances of general concern; and, in case of invasion, each colony was bound to furnish a certain quota of men and money. (See Hubbard's Hist. of New England; Hist. of New England, by Hannah Adams; Hutchinson's Hist. of Massachusetts; Prince's New England Chronology; Tudor's Letters on the Eastern States; Dwight's Travels in New England.)

ENGRAVING is the art of representing, by means of lines and points produced on a metallic surface by cutting or corrosion, the figures, lights and shades of objects, in order to multiply them by means of printing. The engraver is to the painter what the translator is to the author. As it is impossible to give a spirited translation of a work of genius without a portion of the author's fire, so it is essential to a good engraver that he should feel and understand the character of his original, and be initiated into the secrets of drawing, that his copy may be at once correct and spirited.' The art of engraving on copper was invented in Europe in the first half of the 15th century. The Chinese seem to have been acquainted with it long before. The Dutch, the Italians and the Germans compete for the honor of its invention in Europe. It is known that the art was exercised by the Italian Finiguerra as early as 1460. The inventors of it were the goldsmiths, who were in the habit of making devices on their wares; and these, being often executed with much elegance, excited the desire to multiply copies by

transferring them to paper. Engraving differs from printing in having its subjects cut into a hard surface, instead of being raised above it, as is the case with types and wood cuts. Many metals and alloys have been employed for the purpose of engraving. The most common is copper, which is soft enough to be cut when cold, and hard enough to resist the action of the press. We shall now proceed to explain the methods of executing different descriptions of engraving. The graver, an instrument of steel, is principally used in engraving on copper; it is square for cutting of broad lines, and lozenge for the finest, and must be tempered to that exact state, which will prevent the point from breaking or wearing by its action on the metal. The graver is inserted in a handle of hard wood, resembling a pear with a longitudinal slice cut off, which is to enable the artist to use it as flat on the plate as his fingers and thumb will permit. This instrument is used for removing the imperfections discoverable in etchings, and exclusively in engraving writing. In working, this instrument is held in the palm of the hand, and pushed forward so as to cut out a portion of the copper. The scraper is a long, triangular piece of steel, tapering gradually from the handle to the point; the three edges produced by this form, being sharpened on the oil-stone, are used for scraping off the roughness occasioned by the graver, and erasing erroneous lines. The burnisher is a third instrument of steel, hard, round, and highly polished, for rubbing out punctures or scratches in the copper. The oil-stone has been already mentioned. To these may be added the needle, or dry point, for etching, and making those extremely fine lines, which cannot be made with the graver. It is held in the fingers in the same way as a pen or pencil. Various kinds of varnish, resin, wax, charcoal and mineral acids are also employed in different parts of the operation, according to the subject, and the style of engraving which is adopted. The first which we shall describe is

Line Engraving. To trace the design intended for engraving accurately on the plate, it is usual to heat the latter sufficiently to melt white wax, with which it must be covered equally and thin, and suffered to cool; the drawing is then copied in outlines, with a black-lead pencil, on paper, which is laid with the pencilled side upon the wax, and the back rubbed gently with the burnisher, which will transfer the lead to the wax. The design

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must next be traced, with an etching needle, through the wax on the copper, when, on wiping it clean, it will exhibit all the outlines ready for the graver. The table intended for engraving on should be perfectly steady. Great care is necessary to carry the hand with such steadiness and skill, as to prevent the end of the line from being stronger and deeper than the commencement; and sufficient space must be left between the lines to enable the artist to make those stronger, gradually, which require it. The roughness or burr occasioned by the graver must be removed by the scraper, the lines filled by the oil-rubber, and the surface of the copper cleansed, in order that the progress of the work may be ascertained. If any accident should occur, by the slipping of the graver beyond the boundary required, or lines are found to be placed erroneously, they are to be effaced by the burnisher, which leaving deep indentings, these must be levelled by the scraper, rubbed with charcoal and water, and finally polished lightly with the burnisher. As the uninterrupted light of the day causes a glare upon the surface of the copper, hurtful and dazzling to the eyes, it is customary to engrave beneath the shade of silk paper, stretched on a square frame, which is placed reclining towards the room, near the sill of a window. Such are the directions and means to be employed in engraving historical subjects: indeed, the graver is equally necessary for the remedying of imperfections in etching; to which must be added the use of the dry point in both, for making the faintest shades in the sky, architecture, drapery, water, &c., &c.

Stippling. The second mode of engraving is that called stippling, or engraving in dots. This resembles the last mentioned method in its processes, except that, instead of lines, it is finished by minute points or excavations in the copper. These punctures, when made with the dry point, are circular: when made with the graver, they are rhomboidal or triangular. The variations and progressive magnitude of these dots give the whole effect to stippled engraving. This style of work is always more slow, laborious, and, of course, more expensive, than engraving in lines. It has, however, some advantages in the softness and delicacy of its lights and shades, and approaches nearer to the effect of painting than the preceding method. A more expeditious way of multiplying the dots has been contrived in the instrument called a roulette, a toothed wheel, fixed to a handle, which,