lation assumed by a sect of physicians, who contended, that all hypothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that observation and experience alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. Empiric, in modern medicine, is applied to a person who sells or administers a particular drug, or compound, as a remedy for a given disorder, without any consideration of its different stages, or degrees of violence, in different constitutions, climates or seasons. (For empiric philosophy, see Experimental Philosophy.)

EMS; a celebrated watering-place in the duchy of Nassau, on the river Lahn. The environs are beautiful. As early as 1583, it was used as a watering-place. The mineral waters at Ems are warmfrom 70° to 118° Fahr.; they are of the saline class, containing large quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used with much effect in chronic catarrhs, pulmonary complaints, diseases of the stomach, arising from phlegm and acidity, gout, and some diseases of the urinary vessels. (See Die Heilquellen zu Ems, Coblentz, 1821, by Vogler.) Near Ems is a grotto, similar to the grotto del cane, near Naples, the vapors from which cause asphyxia. About 50,000 bottles of the water of Ems are sent away annually.

EMULSIONS; a term applied to the imperfect solutions of the fixed vegetable oils in water. They are obtained by rubbing the seeds affording these oils with water, to which a little sugar has been added.

ENAMELING (from enamel, formed by a junction of the inseparable particle en-borrowed by us from the French, who had taken it from the Latin inand the old English word amel, taken from the émail of the French, both signifying the material used in overlaying the variegated works which we call enameled); the art of variegating with colors laid upon or into another body; also, a mode of painting, with vitrified colors, on gold, silver, copper, &c., and of melting these at the fire, or of making curious works in them at a lamp. This art is of so great antiquity, as to render it difficult or impossible to trace it to its origin. It was evidently practised by the Egyptians, from the remains that have been observed on the ornamented envelopes of mummies. From Egypt it passed into Greece, and afterwards into Rome and its provinces, whence it was probably introduced into Great Britain, as various Roman antiquities have been dug up in different parts

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of the island, particularly in the Barrows, in which enamels have formed portions of the ornaments. The gold cup given by king John to the corporation of Lynn, in Norfolk, proves that the art was known among the Normans, as the sides of the cup are embellished with various figures, whose garments are partly composed of colored enamels. Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and are usually arranged into three classes; namely, the transparent, the semitransparent and opaque. basis of all kinds of enamel is a perfectly transparent and fusible glass, which is rendered either semitransparent or opaque, by the admixture of metallic oxides. The art of coloring glass seems to be of nearly the same antiquity as the invention of making it; which is proved, not only from written documents, but likewise by the variously colored glass corals, with which several of the Egyptian mummies are decorated. White enamels are composed by melting the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manganese, to increase the brilliancy of the color. The addition of the oxide of lead, or antimony, produces a yellow enamel; but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained from the oxide of silver. Reds are formed by an intermixture of the oxides of gold and iron, that composed of the former being the most beautiful and permanent. Greens, violets and blues are formed from the oxides of copper, cobalt and iron; and these, when intermixed in different proportions, afford a great variety of intermediate colors. Sometimes the oxides are mixed before they are united to the vitreous bases. All the colors may be produced by the metallic oxides. The principal quality of good enamel, and that which renders it fit for being applied on baked earthen ware, or on metals, is the facility with which it acquires lustre by a moderate heat, or cherry-red heat, more or less, according to the nature of the enamel, without entering into complete fusion. Enamels applied to earthen ware and metals possess this quality. Enamels are executed upon the surface of copper and other metals, by a method similar to painting. Enameling on plates of metal, and painting with vitrified colors on glass, are practised with great success in England.

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING (encausticus, Lat.; savors), Gr.). Painting in encaustie is executed with the operation of fire. Ancient authors often mention this species of painting, which, if it had been described simply by the word encaustic,

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which signifies executed by fire, might be supposed to have been a species of enamel painting. But the expressions encausto pingere, pictura encaustica, ceris pingere, picturam inurere, by Pliny and other ancient writers, show that another species of painting is meant. We have no ancient pictures of this description, and, therefore, the precise manner adopted by the ancients is not completely developed, though many moderns have closely investigated the subject, and described their processes. This species of painting appears to have been practised in the 4th and 5th centuries.* Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a painter, were the first of modern times who made experiments in this branch of art, about the year 1749. Pliny, in a passage relating to encaustic painting, distinguishes three species: 1. that in which the artists used a style, and painted on ivory or polished wood (cestro in ebore), for which purpose they drew the outlines on a piece of the aforesaid wood or ivory, previously soaked or imbued with some color; the point of the style or stigma served for this operation, and the broad end to scrape off the small filaments that arose from the outlines; and they continued forming outlines with the point till they were finished. 2. The next manner appears to have been one in which the wax, previously impregnated with color, was spread over the surface of the picture with the style, and the colors thus prepared were formed into small cylinders for use. By the side of the painter was a brasier for keeping the styles continually hot, with the points of which they laid on the colors when the outlines were finished, and spread them smooth with the broad end; and thus they proceeded till the picture was finished. 3. The third manner of painting was with a pencil, in wax liquefied by fire. By this method the colors acquired a considerable hardness, and could not be damaged, either by the heat of the sun or the effects of sea-water. In this manner ships were painted, with emblems and other pictures, and therefore it obtained the name of ship painting. Few, of late years, have made more experiments in this mode of painting than an English lady, Mrs. Hooker, who, for her very successful exertions in this branch of the polite arts, was presented with a gold palette by

* Vicenzo Requeno has treated the subject in a very masterly and scientific manner, in a work called Saggj sul Ristabilimento dell' antica Arte de Greci e Romani Pittori, published at Parma,

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the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. of London. Her account is printed in the 10th volume of the society's Transactions, for 1792, when she was miss Emma Jane Greenland. This subject has also been deeply investigated by the chevalier Lorgna, in a small but valuable tract, called Un Discorso sulla Cera Punica. As the thing chiefly regarded in encaustic painting was the securing of permanence and durability, by the application of fire, the word encaustic has been applied, in a very general sense, to other processes, in which both the material and the mode of applying the heat are entirely different from the ancient materials and modes. The word has been used, not only of wax-painting on wood, stone and ivory, but also of painting on earthen vessels, of works in metal, where gold and silver were inlaid, melted, or laid on, and of every thing which was gilt or silvered by fire; which was called gold or silver encaustic. The moderns have also used the term for painting on porcelain, and work in enamel; and in the same way it was given to the painting on glass of the middle ages, such as is now seen in the winIt is dows of some Gothic churches. evident, that all these have nothing to do with the wax-painting of the ancients.

ENCHASING. (See Chasing.)

ENCHORIAL, or ENCHORIC (from the Greek iv, in, and xúpa, country.) The Egyptians employed different alphabets in writing-hieroglyphic, hieratic (used by the priests) and enchorial (used for the common purposes of life, and hence called also epistolographic and demotic. (q. v.) Thus, on the Rosetta stone (q. v.), there are three inscriptions, one in the hieroglyphical character, one in what the Greeks called yxwpia ypaμμata, and one in Greek characters. Young, in his Egyptian Antiquities (London, 1823, page 9), uses the word enchorial, or enchoric, to designate these popular characters, while M. Champollion calls them demotic. (See Demotic, and Hieroglyphics.)

Doctor Thomas

en

ENCLAVE; a term used in German and French, to denote a place or country which is entirely surrounded by the territories of another power. Thus several petty duchies and principalities are claves of Prussia. It is easy to conceive how much confusion and difficulty in the administration and in the imposition of duties must be caused by such a local situation. It has always been a source of disputes, which have been finally settled by treaties.

ENCLOSURE; a fence, wall or hedge, or other means of protection and security, surrounding land. Countries in general lie open, with nothing but banks and ditches to divide the lands of the husbandmen; but in England and the U. States, each farm is divided from others by hedges and fences, and the farins themselves are broken into small enclosures. In France, Germany, Italy, Spain, &c., the lands still remain unenclosed, in large, open fields. Enclosures pleasantly subdivide the labors of the farmer; and, by restraining the exercise of cattle, they occasion them to get fat much sooner.

ENCRATITES; abstinent, or self-denying. (See Gnostics.)

ENCYCLOPEDIA, or CYCLOPEDIA. This word, formed from the Greek, but not a native compound of that language (which uses instead, ¿ykúkdios raidcia, naideía ev kókdo, also ¿ykúкdia μanpara), originally denoted the whole circle of the various branches of knowledge which were comprehended by the ancients in a liberal education (the artes liberales of the Romans; see Arts), At a later period, the word was applied to every systematic view, either of the whole extent of human knowledge (universal encyclopædia), or of particular departments of it (particular or partial encyclopædia). The want of such general surveys was early felt; and, as knowledge increased, they became still more desirable, partly for the purpose of having a systematic arrangement of the sciences, in their mutual relations, partly for the readier finding of particular subjects; and, for these two reasons, such works were sometimes philosophically, sometimes alphabetically arranged. The spirit of compiling, which prevailed in the Alexandrian school, soon led to attempts remotely allied to this, and Varro and Pliny the elder, among the Romans, composed works of a similar kind (the former in the lost works, entitled Rerum humanarum et divinarum Antiquitates, and Disciplinarum Libri IX, the latter in his Historia naturalis). To these may be added the later collections of Stobæus, and Suidas, and especially of Marcianus Capella. These, however, were only preparatory labors. The honor of undertaking encyclopædias on a regular plan, belongs to the middle ages, which, with iron industry, produced not only a large number of cyclopædias of particular sciences, called Summæ, or Specula (e. g. the Summa Theologiæ of Thomas Aquinas), but also a Universal Encyclopædia, such as had never been seen before. The in

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defatigable Dominican, Vincent of Beauvais (Bellovacensis), about the middle of the 13th century, exhibited the whole sum of the knowledge of the middle ages, in a work of considerable size (Speculum historiale, naturale, doctrinale, to which an anonymous author added, some years later, a Speculum morale, in a similar form), in extracts from the works of the writers of the time;-a real treasure to the inquirer into the literary history of the middle ages, and not without value in itself in many respects (e. g. for the light which it throws on profane criticism). The latest edition was published at Douay, in 4 vols. fol. In the 17th century, the works, by no means without value, of Matthius Martinius, professor and rector in the gymnasium at Bremen (Idea methodice et brevis Encyclopædia sive adumbratio Universitatis, Herborn, 1606), and of John Henry Alstead (Encyclopadia vii Tomis distincta, Herborn, 1620, 2 vols fol.) were followed by those of the illustrious Bacon. In these works, not, indeed, very voluminous, but rich in deep and acute thinking (his Novum Organum Scientiarum, first published, London, 1620, fol.; and De Augmentis Scientiarum, Euglish, London, 1605, 4to., Latin, London, 1638, fol.), he laid the foundation of a cyclopædia full of the most profound inquiries, and the boldest anticipations, which his own age was not capable of understanding. Since his time, a multitude of encyclopædias have appeared, but none of them have the purely scientific design of Bacon, and all relate either to the instruction of the young and uninformed (Chevigny, La Science des Personnes de la Cour, de l'Épée, et de la Robe, 5th ed. by H. P. de Liniers, Amsterdam, 1717, 4 vols.; J. E. Wagenseil, Pera Librorum juvenilium, Altorf, 1695, 5 vols.), or are intended as books of reference for the learned. Among the greatest works of earlier date would have been reckoned the Galeria de Minerva of Cornelli, had it been completed according to the original plan. It was to have appeared in 45 folio volumes, of which only 7 were published (Venice, 1696). See Keyssler's Travels, vol. i. 1136. More successful, at least in being brought to a completion, was the Grosse vollständige Universallericon aller Wissenschaften und Künste (Grand Universal Lexicon of all the Arts and Sciences), commonly called Zedler's, from the person who conducted it (Halle and Leipsic, 1732-50, 64 vols.; Supplement, 1751-1754, 4 vols. fol.); but it has, on the whole, little merit, and is successful only in

some particular branches, as, for instance, in genealogy. Of the English works of this kind, which deserve notice, are 1. Chambers' (q. v.) Cyclopædia, or a Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciencesa work which has passed through several editions. 2. Encyclopædia Britannica. Of this there have been 6 editions, the last of which, completed in 1823, contains many improvements; another is now (1830) in the course of publication. The first edition came out in 1788, in 10 vols. 4to.; the 4th in 1810, and the 5th in 1815, as well as the 6th, are in 20 vols. To the 4th and 5th editions is added a Supplement in 6 vols., edited by Napier. 3. Rees' Cyclopædia, 39 vols. 4to. in 79 parts, with 6 supplementary parts, and numerous engravings, London, 1802-20, Philadelphia, 41 vols. 4to., 6 vols. of plates. In the technical department, particularly, this is the most complete work of the kind which we have. 4. Edinburgh Encyclopædia, 1810 et seq., not yet complete; Philadelphia, vol. 17, part 1, appeared in 1829, and comes down to STE. This work, devoted particularly to natural science and technology, is conducted by Dr. Brewster, in Edinburgh. 5. Encyclopædia Londinensis, published by John Wilkes, begun 1796. 6. Encyclopædia Edinensis, begun in 1816, edited by J. Millar, 6 vols. 4to. 7. Encyclopædia Metropolitana, London, 4to., begun in 1815, to consist of 25 vols. 4to. 8. Methodical Cyclopædia, by Mitchell, London, 1823, 12mo., yet unfinished. Nicholson's British Encyclopædia, in 12 vols. 1809 et seq. 10. Gregory's Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 3 vols. 4to., first American, from second English edition, Philadelphia and Charleston, 1815. Besides these larger works, a multitude of smaller cyclopædias have been published by Watson, Willich, Enfield, Kendal and others. The Italians have G. P. Pivati's Dizionario scientifico e curioso, sacro-profano, Venice, 1746-51, 10 vols. fol. Of the French cyclopædias, the most famous is the great Dictionnaire Encyclopédique, by Diderot and D'Alembert, (see next article), frequently called, par excellence, The Encyclopædia. This was followed by the more extensive one of Félice. Still more comprehensive is the Encyclopédie méthodique, ou par Ordre de Matières, which has been publishing at Paris since 1782, and is now extended to 148 4to. vols. text, and 52 vols. copperplates. Several works of this kind have also been published in Germany. Krunitz's Encyclopædia is the most celebra

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ted, of which 146 vols. had been published in 1827, as far as the article Schiffahrt. There is an abridgment, also, of this work, in many vols. The Deutsche Encyclopädie oder allgem. Wörterbuch aller Künste und Wissenschaften, begun by Köster, in 1778, and continued by J. F. Roos, to the 23d volume, 1804, remains unfinished (A to KY, with a volume of engravings, folio). At present, there is a new great German encyclopædia publishing by Richter, a bookseller in Leipsic, which has been edited by Ersch (q. v., lately deceased) and Gruber, professors at Halle, of which 15 vols. 4to. have already appeared. Among the latest encyclopædian journals are Jullien's Revue Encyclopédique, and Férussac's Bulletin universel des Sciences et de l'Industrie, the latter of which is published monthly, arranged in 8 sections. (For an account of the German Conversations-Lexicon, see our Preface.)

The rapid advancement of the sciences and arts, and the proportionally rapid communication between all civilized nations, have made a general acquaintance with many different branches of knowledge more desirable, and often more necessary, than ever before. This is one of the chief causes which have produced in our time so many encyclopædias of various kinds, some very learned, and others more adapted for the general reader; some embracing all the sciences and arts, others only single branches; of the latter sort are Loudon's Encyclopædias of Gardening, of Agriculture, &c. To the same class belong the numerous dictionaries intended to impart information in certain branches of knowledge, useful or entertaining, from the learned Physikalisches Wörterbuch of Gehler, to the lively Dictionnaire des Girouettes, or Dictionnaire des Bons-mots. Among the encyclopædian works particularly intended for general readers, are the Library of Useful Knowledge, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge-a society well deserving its name, and whose activity has been called forth chiefly by the exertions of Mr. Brougham; the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, published also by the same society (of which, according to the report of the society, in 1830, not less than 19,000 copies had been sold); an Almanac (of which, in 1830, 41,000 copies were sold), and the useful Companion to the British Almanac (of which, in 1830, 17,000 copies were sold); doctor Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia, the Family Library, &c. A similar work to the Li