E; the second vowel and the fifth letter
of the English alphabet. The sound e
(as in bench, or long, as in the French
père) in the early stages of all languages,
often passes into i (as in liver, or the Ital-
ian i), into a (as in father), and into o. But
of the languages of modern civilized na-
tions, since their orthography has been set-
tled, the English gives to the letter e the
most different sounds; as that of the Ger-
man short e, for instance, in bet; that of
the Germani, as in revere, he, me; that
of the German a, in clerk (pronounced
clark), sergeant (pronounced sargeant; at
least, this mode of pronouncing exists in
England); that of u, as in voter, murder.
We find similar sounds of e in different
dialects of Germany; for instance, in the
dialect of Silesia, where spoken most
broadly, Seele (soul) is pronounced as an
Englishman would pronounce it, whilst
the true German pronunciation of the
word is as if it were written Sa-le. In
Latin, we also find here for heri, Vergilius
for Virgilius, Deana for Diana; and, in
old Italian, desiderio and disiderio, peggiore
and piggiore. In French, e is pronounced
in three different ways-the è ouvert, é
fermé and e muet-all three in the word
fermeté. In German, there are four differ-
ent ways of pronouncing the letter e; 1.
merely as an aspiration, or very short in-
deed, as in hatte or hoffen; 2. short, like
the English e in bet, met, as in recht,
rennen; 3. long, like the English a in
fate, as in reden, predigen; and like the
French è ouvert, or like the German a
or a, as in Elend, although little distinc-
tion is generally made between the two
latter. Some provinces generally pro-
nounce both like the latter; others pro-
nounce them like the former, or like a in
fate. The letter e may be called an in-
truder into the German language, because
it has taken the place formerly occupied
by full and melodious vowels, and it oc-
curs too often. The Greeks, it is well
known, had two characters-, or epsilon,
and, or eta, the latter corresponding to
the French é ouvert, if it was not pro-
nounced, as in modern Greek, like the
31

VOL. IV.

Italian . E, in the Greek numeration, signified five. Many dictionaries state, that E was used by the ancients for 250, according to the verse—

E quoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebit; but this was only in late and barbarous times. E, as an abbreviation, stands, in English, for east. On ancient medals, it stands for the names of cities which begin with this letter; for exercitus, effigies, edictum, or for eros, the year, ev@egia, liberty, &c. The letter E, on modern French coins, signifies the mint of Tours; on Prussian, the mint of Königsberg; on Austrian, that of Karlsburg. (See Abbreviations.) EAGLE; a coin. (See Coins.) EAGLE (falco). This well known bird belongs to the genus falco, which has been much subdivided by modern omnithologists. In the present article, those species only will be noticed which belong to the subgenera of aquila and haliætus. The eagle has been elevated, by the popular voice, to the rank of the noblest and most courageous of the rapacious birds. Its natural fierceness is so great, that it has seldom been employed for the purposes of the chase, as it can never be rendered sufficiently tractable to obey its keeper. The eagle soars to a greater height than any other bird, from which circumstance the ancients considered it as the messenger of Jove," Fulvam aquilam Jovis nuntiam." Its sense of sight is exquisite. It lives for a great length of time, even in the captive state. Mr. Pennant mentions one in the possession of a gentleman, which he had kept for nine years, and the person from whom he had received it, thirty-two. The principal species are, 1. the falco imperialis (Bechst), or imperial eagle. This species is the largest known. It is distinguished by a large white spot on the scapulars, transverse nostrils, black tail, marked with gray on its superior portion. The female is fawn-colored, with brown spots. It is stouter than the common eagle. It inhabits the high mountains of the middle of Europe; and to this species may be refer

red all the accounts of the ancients respect of Cuvier, and is furnished with a terrible ing the strength, courage and magnanimity beak and claws. Its size is larger than of these birds. 2. Falco chrysætos (golden that of the common eagle; its plumage is eagle). This fine bird measures, from the ash-colored on the head and neck, blackpoint of the bill to the extremity of the ish-brown on the breast and sides, whitish toes, upwards of three feet, and, from tip beneath, rayed with brown on the thighs. to tip, above six, weighing from 12 to 18 It has long plumes, which form a black pounds. The male is smaller than the tuft on the back of the head, and can be female. The bill is of a deep blue color, raised, giving it somewhat the physiognothe cere yellow, the eyes are large, deep my of an owl. This bird is said to be so sunk, and covered by a projecting brow; powerful as to have destroyed men by a the iris is of a fine bright yellow, and blow of its beak. Its usual food is the sparkles with uncommon lustre. The sloth, though it sometimes carries off general color is a deep brown mixed with fawns. There can be no doubt but that tawny on the head and neck; the quills this species is the yzquautzli of Hernandes, are chocolate, with white shafts; the tail though this author is guilty of great exagis black, spotted with ash color, the legs geration when he says it is as large as a are yellow, the toes very scaly, and the sheep. 7. Bald eagle (F. leucocephalus). claws remarkably large. It occurs in va- The bald eagle is the most distinguished of rious parts of Europe and of North Amer- the North American species, not only from ica; in the latter, however, it is rare. his beauty, but also as the adopted em3. F. fulvus (common or ring-tailed ea- blem of our country. This bird has been gle) is said to be the young of this bird. known to naturalists for a long time, and The same nests are made use of by eagles is common to both continents, chiefly frefor a succession of years. These nests are, quenting the neighborhood of the sea, and in fact, of great bulk, and of such durable the shores and cliffs of lakes and large materials as to be almost indestructible. rivers. He is found during the whole They are built in dry and inaccessible year in the countries he inhabits, prefersituations, of large twigs, lined with seve- ring the spots we have mentioned from ral layers of reeds or brambles; of a flat his great partiality for fish. The followform, several feet in breadth, and of such ing poetic description of one of his modes strength as to support not only the eagle of obtaining his prey is given by Wilson: and her young, but likewise the large "Elevated upon a high, dead limb of some quantity of food she provides for them. gigantic tree, that commands a wide view This is so great, that it is related by Smith, of the neighboring shore and ocean, he in his history of Kerry, that a peasant seems calmly to contemplate the motions procured a comfortable subsistence for his of the various feathered tribes that pursue family, during a summer of famine, by their busy avocations below-the snowrobbing the eaglets of the food provided white gulls, slowly winnowing the air; for them by the old birds. In the middle the busy tringa, coursing along the of this aërie, the female deposits two or sands; trains of ducks, streaming over the three eggs, and sits on them about thirty surface; silent and watchful cranes, intent days. The plumage of the eaglets is not and wading; clamorous crows, and all as dark as it becomes when they arrive at the winged multitudes that subsist by the the adult state; but age, famine and cap- bounty of this vast liquid magazine of tivity gradually diminish their natural nature. High over all these hovers one, colors, and give them a faded appearance. whose action instantly arrests all his atten4. White-tailed eagle (F. albicilla). This tion. He knows him to be the fish-hawk, bird, which is only found in the old conti- settling over some devoted victim of the nent, is inferior in size to the golden deep. His eye kindles at the sight, and, eagle. It inhabits far north, and is ex- balancing himself with half-opened wings tremely ferocious; feeds principally upon on the branch, he watches the result. fish, and usually lays two or three eggs, Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, building its nest upon lofty trees. It is descends the distant object of his attention, distinguished by its black bill and claws, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it and white tail. 5. The sea-eagle of Europe disappears in the deep, making the surges (F.ossifragus) is the young of this species, foam around. At this moment, the eager whilst the bird on which Wilson has looks of the eagle are all ardor, and, levelbestowed the same denomination in this ling his neck for flight, he sees the fishcountry, is the young of the bald eagle. hawk once more emerging, struggling with 6. Great eagle of Guiana (F. harpyia). his prey, and mounting in the air with This bird belongs to the sub-genus harpyia screams of exultation. These are a signal

EAGLE-EAR.

for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase; soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying, in the rencounter, the most elegant and sublime aërial evolutions. The unincumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp, ere it reaches the water, and bears it silently away to the woods." The bald eagle also destroys quadrupeds, as lambs, pigs, &c.; and there are well authenticated instances of its attempting to carry off children. When this bird has fasted for some time, its appetite is extremely voracious and indiscriminate. Even the most putrid carrion, when nothing better can be had, is acceptable. In hard times, when food is very scarce, the eagle will attack the vulture, make it disgorge the food it has swallowed, and seize this disgusting matter before it can reach the ground. The nest of this species is usually found in a lofty tree, in a swamp or morass. It is large, and, being increased and repaired every season, becomes of great size. It is formed of large sticks, sods, hay, moss, &c. Few birds provide more abundantly for their young than the bald eagle. Fish are daily carried to the nest in such numbers, that they sometimes lie scattered round the tree, and the putrid smell of the nest may be distinguished at the distance of several hundred yards. The eagle is said to live to a great age-60, 80, or even 100 years. In poetry and the fine arts, the eagle plays a very important part. As king of birds, the eagle was the bird of Jove, the carrier of the lightning, and thereby expressive of sole or supreme dominion. In this sense, he is used as the emblem and symbol of nations, princes and armies. He was the hieroglyphic sign of the cities Heliopolis, Emesus, Antioch and Tyre. Among the attributes of royalty, which the Tuscans once sent to the Romans, as a token of amity, was a sceptre with an eagle of ivory; and from that time the eagle remained one of the principal emblems of the republic, and was retained also by the emperors. As the standard of an army, the eagle was first used by the Persians. Among the Romans, they were at first of wood, then of silver, with thunderbolts of gold, and, under Cæsar and his success

363

Aus

ors, entirely of gold, without thunderbolts. For a long time, they were carried, as the standards of the legions, on a long pike, and reverenced as their peculiar deities. Napoleon chose the Roman eagle as his banner. It was of metal, gilt, and elevated on a long staff; but the royal army in France no longer retains this standard. The double-headed eagle was first found among the emperors of the East, who thereby expressed their claims to the Eastern and Western empires. It was afterwards adopted by the Western emperors. The German einperor Otho IV had it first on his seal. King Philip afterwards made it the impress on his coins. tria received this emblem from the inheritance of the East. The eagle was also adopted by the kings of Prussia, Poland, Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, by the emperors of Russia, by many princes, counts and barons of the German empire, and by the U. States of America. Napoleon's eagle was seated, with his wings folded, like that of the Romans. The eagle of the U. States stands with outspread wings, guarding the shield below him, on which are the stripes and stars representing the states of the Union, and the motto E pluribus unum.-The eagle is also the badge of several orders, as the black eagle and the red eagle of Prussia, the white eagle of Poland, &c.

EAHEINOMAUWE; a large island in the South Pacific ocean, and the most northern of the two constituting New Zealand, extending from lat. 34° 30′ to 41° 30′ S. Its form is irregular. From lat. 37° 30′ to 39° 40′ S., the breadth is from 150 to 180 miles; afterwards it decreases gradually to 30 miles, the distance from cape Tierawitte to cape Palliser, its most southern point.

EAR (auris). The ear is the organ of hearing. It is situated at the side of the head, and is divided into external and internal ear. The auricula, or pinna, commonly called the ear, constitutes the external part. It is of a greater or less size, according to the individual. The pinna is formed of a fibrous cartilage, elastic and pliant: the skin which covers it is thin and dry. There are also seen, upon the different projections of the cartilaginous ear, certain muscular fibres, to which the name of muscles has been given. The pinna, receiving many vessels and nerves, is very sensible, and easily becomes red. It is fixed to the head by the cellular tissue, and by muscles, which are called, according to their position, anterior, superior and posterior. These muscles are

364

EAR-EAR-TRUMPETS.

in

much developed in many animals man, they may be considered as simple vestiges. The meatus auditorius, or auditory passage, extends from the concha to the membrane of the tympanum; its length, variable according to age, is from 10 to 12 lines in the adult; it is narrower in the middle than at the ends; it presents a slight curve above and in front. Its external orifice is commonly covered with hairs, like the entrance to the other cavities. The middle ear comprehends the cavity of the tympanum, the little bones which are contained in this cavity, the mastoid cells, the Eustachian tube, &c. The tympanum is a cavity which separates the external from the internal ear. Its form is that of a portion of a cylinder, but a little irregular. The external side presents the membrana tympani. This membrane is directed obliquely downward and inward: it is bent, very slender and transparent, covered on the outside by a continuation of the skin; on the inside, by the narrow membrane which covers the tympanum. Its tissue is dry, brittle, and has nothing analogous in the animal economy; there are neither fibres, vessels nor nerves found in it. The cavity of the tympanum, and all the canals which end there, are covered with a very slender mucous membrane: this cavity, which is always full of air, contains, besides, four small bones (the malleus, incus, os orbiculare, and stapes), which form a chain from the membrana tympani to the fenestra ovalis, where the base of the stapes is fixed. There are some little muscles for the purpose of moving this osseous chain, of stretching and slackening the membranes to which it is attached: thus the internal muscle of the malleus draws it forward, bends the chain in this direction, and stretches the membranes; the anterior muscle produces the contrary effect: it is also supposed that the small muscle which is placed in the pyramid, and which is attached to the neck of the stapes, may give a slight tension to the chain, in drawing it towards itself. The internal ear, or labyrinth, is composed of the cochlea, of the semicircular canals, and of the vestibule. The cochlea is a bony cavity, in form of a spiral, from which it has taken its name. This cavity is divided into two others, which are distinguished into external and internal. The partition which separates them is a plate set edgeways, and which, in its whole length, is partly bony and partly membranous. The semicircular canals are three cylindrical cavities, bent in a semi

circular form, two of which are disposed horizontally, and the others vertically. These canals terminate by their extremities in the vestibule. They contain bodies of a gray color, the extremities of which are terminated by swellings. The vestibule is the central cavity, the point of union of all the others. It communicates with the tympanum, the cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the internal meatus auditorius, by a great number of little openings. The cavities of the internal ear are entirely hollowed out of the hardest part of the temporal bone: they are covered with an extremely thin membrane, and are full of a very thin and limpid fluid: they contain, besides, the acoustic nerve. The internal ear and middle ear are traversed by several nervous threads, the presence of which is, perhaps, useful to hearing.

EAR-TRUMPETS; instruments used by persons partially deaf, to strengthen the sensation of sound. They are of various forms, and are intended to compensate for the want of the external ear, or to augment its power when the internal organs perform their functions but imperfectly. The purpose of the external ear, both in men and beasts, is to collect, by its funnel form, all the rays of sound (if we may be allowed the expression), and conduct them to the internal organs, the seat of the sense of hearing. sense of hearing. All the artificial instruments, then, ought to resemble, in form, the natural ear. In ancient times, they were made like a trumpet, of moderate size, and usually provided with handles, by which they might be held up to the ear. They were so fitted that the smaller aperture entered the car, and the wider was directed to the quarter from which the sound was to proceed. But these instruments were soon found inconvenient, both on account of their size and the necessity of continually holding them to the ear. Another objection was, that they did not sufficiently conceal the defect they were designed to remedy, and therefore they were soon thrown aside. New instruments were made without these defects. One resembles a small silver funnel, with a long winding channel in its interior, which terminates at the beginning of the auditory passage. On the broad, bent rim there are holes, with ribbons passing through them, to fix the machine to the external ear. A second form consists of a lackered tin tube, with numerous windings, having the narrow end communicating with the auditory passage, and the exterior, wider end made fast to the

EAR-TRUMPETS-EARTH.