this fungous matter be really an effect of the dry-rot, yet it is as truly a cause of the same evil. There are no means of restoring rotten timber to a sound state, and the dry-rot can only be cured, as it is called, by removing the decayed and affected parts, clearing away all the fungi, and destroying its vegetating principle, with which the hard materials, such as bricks or stone, may have been impregnated. For this purpose, a strong solution of iron, copper, or zinc, is used with advantage. This, with the admission of a large quantity of air, is very advantageous. Many persons have written on the subject; and the nostrums proposed are as numerous as their authors. But no means of checking the evil can be depended upon, except that of removing the corrupted and contagious matter, and admitting a free circulation of air. Much also may be done by cutting timber in winter, and properly seasoning it, by steeping it in water for some time, and then thoroughly drying it before it is used in building.

DSHAMY; a Persian poet. (See Jami.)

DSHINGIS KHAN. (See Gengis Khan.) DUAL, in grammar; that number which is used, in some languages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The dual, in some languages, is a firmly established grammatical form, as in the Attic dialect; in other languages, it is used only in certain cases, with certain words, or only faint traces of it are to be recognised. The Sanscrit has a dual number. Of modern languages which have a literature, Arabic is the only idiom which has retained it. That copious language has a dual, to designate two things; a particular plural form, to express from three to nine objects; the plural, for several of any number whatever; and the plural-plural, formed from the plural (though only in some words), to designate ten or any larger or indefinite number. Even for substantives which express a number of things, as a species of animals or plants, the Arabians have a characteristical singular, of which also a plural may be made. (See Silvestre de Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, tom. i., pp. 702, 704, 710.) In the American languages, traces of the dual are very often met with, from Greenland to Araucania. (See William von Humboldt's Discourse Ueber den Dualis, read in the academy of sciences at Berlin, April 26, 1827, printed at Berlin, 1828; a treatise which does not pretend to exhaust the

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subject, but will assist a scholar in making further investigations.)

DUALISM; DUALIST. 1. Dualism is the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the adoption of two dissimilar primitive principles, not derived from each other: such, for instance, are the ideal and the real, or the material and the thinking substance. Dualism may be either dogmatical, or critical, or sceptical. In a stricter sense, dualism is confined to (a) the adoption of two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in the Oriental religions; (b), to the adoption of two different principles in man, viz., a spiritual and a corporeal principle: this is called the psychological dualism. He who embraces this view is called a dualist. Opposed to the system of dualism is monism, which is either idealism or realism, spiritualism or materialism. 2. In theology, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain that only certain elected persons are capable of admission to eternal happiness, and that all the rest will be subjected to eternal condemnation.

DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in the province of Leinster and county of Dublin, within a mile of the bay of that name, which is of a circular form, and about six miles in diameter, and into which the river Liffey runs, after dividing the city, through which its course is nearly west to east, into equal parts. Though spacious, this bay is neither commodious nor safe, particularly in winter. Its defects are, in part, remedied by a magnificent wall of stone, which runs out into the bay the distance of 8564 yards, and is terminated by a light-house. On the opposite side of the harbor is another light-house, together with a pier and harbor; and, lately, a pier has been begun at Dunleary, a village on the south side of the bay, and two and a half miles within its mouth. From the point of Ringsend, where the Liffey enters the bay, it is embanked on either side with a noble wall of freestone, forming a range of beautiful and spacious quays through the whole city. The river is crossed in its course through the city by seven stone bridges. Dublin is, besides, nearly insulated by two canals, which give great advantages for inland communication. The houses, with the exception of the principal public structures, are generally brick, and from three to five stories high. In the old part of the city, the streets are irregular, although those which range parallel to, and at right angles with, the Liffey, are uniform and

capacious. Few cities of its size can boast of a greater number of magnificent and useful buildings. The castle, which was completed and flanked with towers in 1213, is situated about the centre of the city, and is the seat of government. The castle chapel, recently rebuilt, is an exquisite specimen of Gothic architecture. The other public buildings are, the royal exchange, the commercial buildings, the corn exchange or burgh-quay, the linen hall, the custom-house (in front 375 by 209 feet), the stamp-office, the post-office, and the parliament house (now converted into the national bank). Opposite to the east front of the custom-house are the government wet docks; and adjacent to the post-office is Nelson's pillar, raised to the height of 130 feet. In the centre of college-green is an equestrian statue of William III, erected in 1701. In the Phoenix park, an obelisk, 210 feet high, has been erected in honor of the duke of Wellington. On the east side of college-green is the grand front of Trinity college, which is of Portland stone, of the Corinthian order. This building extends in depth 600 feet. The park is in the rear of the college, and contains 25 acres, adorned with fine trees. Dublin university (viz., its provost, fellows, and scholars arrived at 21 years of age) returned two members to the parliament of Ireland, and still returns one to that of the United Kingdom. Dublin contains 19 parishes, 2 cathedrals, 19 parish churches, besides several chapels of the established religion; 2 meetinghouses of the church of Scotland, 7 of other dissenters, 4 of Methodists, 2 of Quakers, 1 Lutheran Danish, 1 French Calvinist, and about 26 Roman Catholic chapels. St. Patrick's cathedral is an antique building, in a low and ruinous part of the town, erected in 1190, decorated with a steeple in 1370, and a very lofty spire in 1750. Christ church, built in 1038, the ancient cathedral of Dublin, is another venerable pile, containing some curious monuments. St. George's church is a superb edifice, lately built, with a magnificent front and lofty spire. No city, for its size, abounds more in charitable institutions. These are, in general, well endowed, and some of them are splendid buildings. The royal barracks are in the west end of the town, near the river. At the west of the city, opposite to the Phoenix park, is the royal hospital of Kilmainham, for the reception of disabled and superannuated soldiers, on the plan of the Chelsea hospital. Dublin is a corporate body, with a chief magistrate, who

has the title of lord mayor, elected annually from the aldermen, who are 25 in number, elected for life from citizens who have served as sheriffs: two sheriffs are chosen annually from the common council, who are 96 in number, and are triennially elected from their respective guilds by the freemen, a very numerous body, amounting to perhaps 2000. The freemen of Dublin, in conjunction with its freeholders, also return two members to the united parliament. Population, 185,881; 60 miles W. of Holyhead in Wales, and 330 N. W. London; lon. 6° 15′ W.; lat. 53° 21′ N.

DUBOIS, William, cardinal, prime minister of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, was the son of an apothecary, and was born in 1656, in a small town in the province of Limousin. At the age of 12 years, he was sent to Paris; and, after having studied in the college of St. Michael, he obtained the place of private tutor. He afterwards became acquainted with the sub-tutor of the duke of Chartres, M. de St. Laurent, who, having become infirm, was assisted in his duties by Dubois. Dubois ingratiated himself into the favor of his pupil, and, after the death of St. Laurent, was chosen to succeed him. From this time he played two parts-that of a tutor and that of a pimp to his young master. Louis XIV wished to marry his nephew to his natural daughter, Mlle. de Blois. Monsieur, the king's brother, was not averse to the match, but the king was too well acquainted with the haughty spirit of the duchess to expect her consent. Dubois was therefore employed to gain her and the young prince. His address was successful, and he was rewarded with the abbey of St. Just, in Picardy. Louis, who had become sensible of his talents, allowed him to join the French ambassador at London. Here the chevalier Dubois made some important acquaintances, through the influence of St. Evremont. He was particularly connected with lord Stanhope, whose friendship was the source of his future fortune. Dubois returned to France, and, under the modest title of a secretary, soon became the privy counsellor of the duke of Orleans, and overseer of his household. He encountered, with success, the numerous obstacles and encmies opposed to his advancement. In 1715, the duke was declared regent; and Dubois, not less ambitious than artful, now ventured to indulge extravagant hopes. In spite of the opposition of the most influential persons, he was appointed by the duke counsellor of state. The intrigues of the Spanish court, at that time under the direction of

the cardinal Alberoni, gave the duke much trouble, and made him desirous of a powerful ally. Dubois directed his attention towards England, and offered to conduct a secret negotiation with the court of that country. His acquaintance with lord Stanhope was now very useful to him. He succeeded in overcoming the dislike of George I to the person of the regent, and, in 1718, concluded the triple alliance between England, France and Holland. It has been asserted that Dubois sold himself to England; but this is not true; on the contrary, it was necessary for him to buy others, to succeed in his negotiations. He was rewarded by the place of minister of foreign affairs, and now began to aspire to the highest dignities of the church. The archbishopric of Cambray having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but, as the king of England united with Dubois in his request, he obtained it, and, in one morning, received all the orders, and, a few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address, he obtained a cardinal's hat, and, in 1722, was appointed prime minister. His power had now no bounds; but his excesses had rendered him infirm. He was scarcely able to get in and out of his carriage, and yet he appeared on horseback for the sake of receiving military honors at a review. The exertion caused an internal injury, of which he died Aug. 10, 1723. The duke of St. Simon has given an accurate picture of him: "Dubois was a little, thin, meager man, with a polecat visage. All the vices, falsehood, avarice, licentiousness, ambition, and the meanest flattery, contended in him for the mastery. He lied to such a degree as to deny his own actions, when taken in the fact. Notwithstanding an affected stammering, which he had adopted for the purpose of gaining time to penetrate the motives of others, his rich, instructive and insinuating conversation would have rendered him agreeable, had it not been for the mist of falsehood which issued from every pore, and rendered even his gayety unpleasant. In spite of his debauchery, he was very industrious. His wealth was immense, and his revenue amounted to millions. His memory was hated and ridiculed. Even the inscription on his tomb is a satire; for, after enumerating all his offices and dignities, it concludes, solidiora et stabiliora bona, viator, mortuo precare."

DUBOS, Jean Baptiste; one of the ear

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liest French writers who endeavored to found a theory of the arts on general principles. He enriched the theory of the arts by his comparison of poetry, painting and music (Reflexions sur la Poésie, la Peinture et la Musique, Paris, 1719; 6th ed., 1755, in 3 vols.). The foundation on which he rested his theory was, the necessity which every one feels of exercising the powers of his mind, and of setting his invention at work. He was born at Beauvais, in 1670, studied there and at Paris, and was placed, in 1695, in the office of foreign affairs, under the minister De Torcy, who gave him important commissions in Germany, Italy, England and Holland. In these journeys, he collected the information concerning the arts which his book contains. After his return to France, he obtained a benefice, a pension, and, in 1722, was elected perpetual secretary of the French academy. He distinguished himself as a historian by his Histoire de la Ingue de Cambray (Paris, 1721, 2 vols., 12mo.), and by his Histoire critique de l'Etablissement de la Monarchie Française dans les Gaules (Amsterdam, 1743, 2 vols., 4to. and 12mo.). Voltaire ranks him among the writers who were an honor to the age of Louis XIV. He died at Paris, 1742.

DUCANGE. (See Dufresne.)

DUCAT is a gold or silver coin. For its value, see Coins.-In Switzerland, ducats are called Schildfranken. The Dutch ducats, which are coined in great numbers, are the most used in commerce, and are to be found in all quarters of the world. In the northern countries of Europe, and particularly in Russia, the dealings in money and goods are carried on mostly by means of this coin. The exportation of ducats is, therefore, an important branch of Dutch commerce. This coin and the name are derived from Longinus, a duke of Ravenna, in the 6th century: the first issue of them has also been ascribed to St. Roger II, of Apulia, who, in 1140, coined ducats bearing the figure of Christ, and the inscription, Sit tibi, Christe, datus, quem tu regis, iste ducatus. The Venetians took his ducats for their pattern in 1280: they were found to constitute a convenient medium of exchange, were adopted by Genoa, and thus came into general use. This standard of coin was also adopted in Hungary; and, for a long time, all foreign coins bore the name of Ongri or Hungarians, in Italy, where the trade of the world was, at this period, concentrated. They were, in many kinds of business, the favorite standard of reck