DEGREE-DEGREES, MEASUREMENT OF. Ellipticities of the Earth, expressed in Parts of its equatorial Diameter. 161 Rotatory motion. Vibrations of the pendulum. DEGREES, MEASUREMENT OF. After the immortal Newton had taught that the earth, on account of its motion round its axis, must be highest near the equator, and that the diameter of the equator must be longer, by one 230th part, than the diameter from pole to pole, the French wished to investigate the subject farther by actual measurement. Newton gave them warning that the difference between a degree at Bayonne and one at Dunkirk was so trifling that it could not be detected at all with the imperfect instruments then in use; and was, in fact, afraid that 35.54 79 13.17 they might come to a result directly opposite to what he conceived to be correct, and bring confusion into science. But his warnings were of no avail. The measurement was begun, and the fear of the great philosopher was realized; for the result was, that the axis of the poles was longer than a diameter of the equator, and that the earth was, in form, more like a lemon than an orange. For 40 years, disputes were maintained on this point, without settling the question; and, at last, the academy of sciences resolved, on the proposition of Condamine (q. v.), to 162 DEGREES, MEASUREMENT OF. from the same deep thirst for knowledge, which has so often impelled men to explore the icy seas of the poles and the burning deserts of Africa. The history of such expeditions is better fitted to awaken a generous spirit in youth than the oft-repeated tale of conquest and bloodshed. have a degree measured at the equator (the expedition went to South America in 1735), and one in Lapland (Kittis and Tornea being the extreme stations to which the expedition was sent in 1736). It was found that the northern degree was greater than that under the equator, and that Newton's conjecture was right. But the question still remained, How great is Measurement of a Degree of Longitude. the flattening of our planet? The theory The degrees of longitude are largest unsaid, one 230th part, if the earth had been der the equator, and diminish continually in a perfectly liquid state, when it began towards the pole. Under the equator, a its rotation. The calculations, however, degree of longitude contains 60 geographialways gave different results, varying ac- cal, 694 statute miles. If the form of the cording to the different measurements earth is not entirely regular, the degrees adopted as the basis of them; for meas- of longitude on the same parallel of latiurements had been made, not only in tude cannot all be of the same length; America and Lapland, but also in France, and it has been proposed to investigate England, Hungary, and Italy. It was this by actual measurement. This task is, concluded, that the earth was not a regu- in the trigonometric part, as easy as the lar body, but had great local inequalities. measurement of a degree of latitude; but Though this was possible, yet the conclu- in the astronomical part, it is 15 times sion was too hasty, because these supposmore difficult. The difference of the loned inequalities might be caused by the gitude of two places is determined by the insufficiency of the instruments, and by difference of the hour of the day, at the the smallness of the arcs measured. same point of time in the two; as a place. When the French established their new situated 15 degrees to the east of another, and admirable system of measures and has noon a whole hour earlier. One hour. weights upon the basis of the metre, therefore, corresponds to 15 degrees, or which was to be the ten millionth part of 1042 statute miles under the equator, or the distance from the equator to the pole 5,504,400 feet; a minute of time, to 91,740 (31 English feet; sec Measures), it feet, and a second of time, to 1529 feet. A was necessary to know, with accuracy, mistake of a second of time, therefore, in the circumference and the flattening of calculating the longitude of two places, the earth. A measurement, therefore, makes a corresponding error in space. To took place in France, not of one degree, determine time, within two or three secbut of 10 degrees, from Dunkirk to For- onds, by means of rockets, at a distance of mentera. (Sec Delambre.) In Sweden, 10423 miles, is impossible; and, whilst the in 1802, the degree, which, 80 years be- measurement of an arc, corresponding to fore, had been measured by Maupertuis, this distance, trigonometrically, may be atwas now measured again, with better in- tended with an error to the amount of 200 struments, and thus the circumference feet, an astronomical measurement would and flattening of the earth were pretty leave an uncertainty of 2000 feet. The well ascertained. After the peace, the earlier measurements of the French were measurements of degrees, which were directed, in the North, by Maupertuis; in made in England, under general Roy, by the South, by Bouguer. Detailed notices lieutenant-colonel Mudge, were connected on the measurements of degrees are given with those in France; and thus an are of by Delambre, in his Astronomie, iii, chap. 20 degrees, from the Balearic islands, near 35. A popular description is given in the the coast of Spain, over France and excellent work, Anleitung zur Allgemeinen England, to the Orcades, has been meas- Kenntniss d. Erdkugel (Introduction to a ured, and the flattening of the earth has general Knowledge of the Globe, second been determined as accurately as it can edition, Berlin, 1803), by Bode. The labe done in Europe. The flattening has test information respecting this subject is He been found to be one 304th. In India, given by captain Edward Sabine. Lambton has begun the measurement of made observations with the pendulum, a degree. These measurements of de- from lat. 13° S. to lat. 80° N. He calcugrees are among those enterprises which lates the flattening of the earth to be do mankind much honor, because they ; and if the measurements of Saare not undertaken for the sake of imme- bine, Kater, and the modern French ones diate profit, nor of bare utility, but from by Biot, are connected, and the mean of an ardent desire of knowing the truth, the whole taken, the flattening will be 198 1000 1 28 DEGREES, MEASUREMENT OF-DELAMBRE. found to be . (See Sabine's Account of Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth, by Means of the Pendulum vibrating Seconds in different Latitudes, London, 1825, 4to.) DEGREE, in universities, denotes a distinction conferred on the students or members thereof, as a testimony of their proficiency in the arts or sciences, and entitling them to certain privileges. The degrees are much the same in all universities; but the laws thereof, and the previous discipline or exercise, differ. The degrees are, bachelor, master and doctor; instead of which last, in some foreign universities, is licentiate. DEÏDAMEA (Deidameia); daughter of Lycomedes: she bore Pyrrhus and Onites to Achilles, during his abode at Seyrus. DEI GRATIA (by the grace of God); a formula which sovereigns add to their title. The expression is taken from an Epistle of the apostle Paul, and was used first by the clergy in the time of Constantine the Great. In the times of the Carlovingian race, the secular princes also assumed it. The high clergy of the Catholic church used it with an addition: "By the grace of God and the apostolic see. DEIOTARUS, tetrarch of Galatia, received from the Roman senate the title of king of that province and Armenia Minor, on account of services rendered to the Romans in the Asiatic wars. In the civil war, he joined the party of Pompey. Casar took from him Armenia, obliged him to march with him against Pharnaces, and left him nothing but the title of royalty. He was accused of having plotted against the life of Cæsar, from which charge Cicero defended him in an oration yet extant. After the murder of Cæsar, he returned to his dominions, joined Brutus, and afterwards Augustus. He died, at an advanced age, 30 B. C. DEIR; an Arabian word signifying house; as, Deir-el-Kamar, the house of the moon. It often occurs in geographical compounds. DEISM (from the Latin deus), as a philosophical system; that which finds in God the cause of all things. It is, as such, opposed to atheism. In a religious point of view, it is used for the belief in natural religion, contradistinguished from the belief in revelation, and is considered, by many persons, almost equivalent to atheism, though this opinion can only be caused by ignorance. Theism has the same signification, and is derived from the Greek Ocos (god). In India, there is a sect of pure deists, called Seiks. DEJANIRA; daughter of Eneus, king 163 of Calydon, a city of Ætolia; according to others, of Bacchus and Althæa, who, with her sister Gorgo, alone retained her form, when her other sisters were transformed, while mourning for their brother. She was betrothed to Achelous, the god of the river of the same name, who, on her account, engaged in a combat with Hercules. Achelous was overcome, and the maiden became the prize of the victor, who, on his return to his country, was stopped in his way by the river Evenus, which had overflowed its banks. In this emergency, the Centaur Nessus offered to take Dejanira across the river on his back. Hercules readily consented, and passed over the river first; but, when he had reached the opposite bank, he saw that the Centaur was attempting to offer her violence. Enraged at the sight, he pierced him with an arrow, which had been dipped in the blood of the hydra. Nessus, perceiving his death approaching, wished to be revenged, and gave to Dejanira his bloody tunic, telling her that, if her husband was unfaithful, she should persuade him to put this on, and it would reclaint him from his unlawful passion. credulous Dejanira accepted the present. Hearing, subsequently, that Hercules was captivated by the charms of Iole, the daughter of Eurytus of Euboea, she sent him the tunic of Nessus by a young slave, named Lichas, with the tenderest messages. Hercules joyfully accepted the fatal present, and hastened to make use of it; but was thrown into the most violent agony. In his fury, he hurled Lichas into the sea, where, by the compassion of the gods, he was changed into a rock. Then, having hewed down some trees on mount Eta, and erected a funeral pile, he ascended the pile, and begged his friend Philoctetes to set fire to it. When Dejanira heard of the death of Hercules, she was so overcome by anguish, that she destroyed herself. The DEKEN, Agathe; a Dutch authoress, born in 1741, in the village of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam. She wrote Dutch novels and poems of merit; among others, Liederen voor den Bærvenstand. She died in 1804. DELAMBRE; one of the most distinguished astronomers of our time, born at Amiens, in 1749; studied under the abbé Delille, who always remained his friend. IIe first applied himself to the languages, particularly most of the living ones, and inade himself one of the best Hellenists in France. His studies were not directed to astronomy until his 36th year. He cnriched the writings of Lalande with a commentary, and became the friend and 164 DELAMBRE-DELAWARE. pupil of the author, who proudly called him his best work. In 1790, eight years after the discovery of Herschel, Delambre published the tables of that planet, although in that period, it had performed but a small part of its 80 years' course. He also constructed tables of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the satellites of Jupiter, which, with several treatises, procured him a reception into the national institute. He was engaged with Méchain, from 1792 till 1799, in measuring an arc of the meridian from Barcelona to Dunkirk for the verification of which he measured two bases of 6000 toises, one near Melun, the other near Perpignan. (See his Base du Système Métrique décimal, ou Mesure de l'Arc du Méridien compris entre les Parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelonne, Paris, 3 vols., 4to.; and Recueil d'Observat. Géodésiques faisant Suite au 3me vol. de la Base du Syst. Métr. rédigé par Biot et Arago). He was made member of the bureau des longitudes. In 1802, Napoleon appointed him inspecteur-général des études, which post he resigned when chosen perpetual secretary of the class of mathematical sciences (1803). His first tables of the sun were published in 1792; in 1806, appeared his new ones. In 1807, he succeeded Lalande in the collège de France, and wrote his Traité d'Astronomie théorique et pratique (3 vols., 4to., 1814), Histoire de l'Astronomie du moyen âge (1819), Hist. de l'Astron. moderne (1821, 2 vols.) and Hist. de l'Astron. du 18me. Siècle (2 vols.); a collection of works such as no other nation can show. Delambre also distinguished himself, as perpetual secretary of the institute, by the justice and elegance of his éloges. He died in 1822. DELAVIGNE, Jean François Casimir; a dramatic poet, born in 1794, at Havre. He commenced his poetical career while a youth, by the dithyramb on the birth of the king of Rome (1811). His poem on the discovery of vaccination received, in 1814, the first of the secondary prizes from the French academy. He then applied himself to dramatic poetry, and published his first tragedy, Les Vepres Siciliennes (1821), which was received with general applause; and has since written a second, Le Paria. The first piece, notwithstanding many faults in the plan and the delineation of most of the characters, displayed remarkable poetic genius: the vigorous sketch of the chief character, by which the whole action is animated, and his fine thoughts expressed in brilliant language, atone for many feeble passages and some false splendor. At the first representation of this piece at the Odéon DELAWARE; one of the United States, bounded N. by Pennsylvania, E. by Delaware river and bay, S. and W. by Maryland; lon. 74° 56′ to 75° 40′ W.; lat. 38 29′ to 39° 47′ N.; 92 miles long, and 23 broad; square miles, 2120: population, in 1790, 59,094; in 1800, 64,272; in 1810, 72,674; in 1820, 72,749; white males, 27,904; white females, 27,377; free blacks, 12,958; slaves, 4509. It is divided into thrce counties, which are subdivided into 25 hundreds. Dover is the seat of government. Wilmington is the largest town. The other most considerable towns are Newcastle, Georgetown, Smyrna, Milford and Lewistown. Presbyterians are the nost numerous denomination of Christians: there are, besides, a considerable number of Methodists. The legislature consists of a senate, chosen for three years, and a house of representatives, chosen annually on the first Tuesday in October. The governor is chosen by the people for DELAWARE-DELAWARE BREAKWATER. three years, but can hold the office only three years in six. The principal rivers besides the Delaware, which forms a part of the boundary, are Brandywine creek, Christiana creek, Duck creek, Mispillion creek, Indian river, Choptank and Nanticoke. Delaware is, next to Rhode Island, the smallest state in extent in the Union, and the least diversified in surface. The general aspect of the greater part is that of an extended plain, though the northwestern part of the county of Newcastle is hilly or uneven. The heights of Christiana are lofty and commanding, and the hills of Brandywine are rough and stony; but in the lower country, there is very little diversity of level. The highest ridge between Delaware and Chesapeake bays passes through this state. On the summit of the ridge, there is a chain of swamps, from which a number of waters descend on the west to Chesapeake bay, and on the east to the river Delaware. Along the Delaware river, and for about 9 miles into the interior, the soil is generally a rich clay, which produces large timber, and is well adapted to the purposes of agriculture; but, between this tract and the swamps, the soil is light, sandy, and of an inferior quality. In the county of Newcastle, the soil is a strong clay; in Kent, it is mixed with sand; and in Sussex, the sand greatly predominates. The principal articles of produce are wheat, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, flax, buck-wheat and potatoes. The county of Sussex contains some excellent grazing lands; and it exports great quantities of timber, obtained from Cypress swamp, on Indian river, which extends about 6 miles from E. to W., and nearly 12 from N. to S. The staple commodity is wheat, which is of a superior quality, and is highly esteemed for its uncommon softness and whiteness, and is preferred in foreign markets. Large establishments have been erected for manufacturing wheat into flour. Of these, the Brandywine mills, in the vicinity of Wilmington, are the most important. These are the finest collection of mills in the U. States, and are celebrated both for the excellence and the quantity of flour which they manufacture. Delaware contains very few minerals. In the county of Sussex, and among the branches of the Nanticoke, are large quantities of bog iron ore, well adapted for casting. Before the revolution, it was wrought to a great extent; but since that event, the business has declined.-Delaware was settled by the Swedes and Finns as early as 1627. The colony was formed under the auspices of 165 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who named the country Nova Suecia. Hoarkill (now Lewistown) was founded in 1630, but, the Dutch claiming the country, it passed under their power in 1655. In 1664, the colony on the Delaware fell, with other parts of New Amsterdam, into the hands of the English, and was granted by Charles II to his brother James, duke of York, who, in 1682, conveyed it, as far as cape Henlopen, to William Penn. In 1704, Delaware, though under the same proprietor, became a separate colonial establishment, and remained such until the revolution. Its constitution was formed in 1776. The Chesapeake and Delaware canal crosses this state. As a manufacturing state, Delaware holds a rank far above its relative extent and population. The works near Wilmington are extensive and highly valuable. As early as 1810, the value of the various manufactures exceeded $1,733,000. DELAWARE; a river of the U. States, which rises in Catskill mountains, in New York. In its course, it separates Pennsylvania from New York and New Jersey, and loses itself in Delaware bay, about 5 miles below Newcastle. It is navigable for a 74 gun ship to Philadelphia, 55 miles above the head of the bay, and about 120 from the ocean; for sloops to the head of the tide, at Trenton, 35 miles above Philadelphia; and for boats about 100 miles farther, though the boat navigation above Easton is very difficult. Its two most important tributaries are the Schuylkill and the Lehigh. The whole length, from its source to the bay, is about 300 miles. The principal towns on the Delaware, besides Philadelphia, are Easton and Bristol, Pa., Trenton, Bordentown and Burlington, N. J. DELAWARE BAY; a large bay or arm of the sea, between the states of Delaware and New Jersey, formed by the mouth of the Delaware river and several other smaller ones. It is 65 miles long, and, in the centre, about 30 miles across, and about 18 at its mouth, from cape Henlopen, in lat. 38° 47' N., lon. 75° 6'′ W., to cape May, in lat. 38° 57′ N., lon. 74° 52 W. DELAWARE BREAKWATER. The Delaware breakwater is situated at the entrance into the bay of Delaware, near cape Henlopen. The anchorage ground, or roadstead, is formed by a cove in the southern shore, directly west of the pitch of the cape and the seaward end of an extensive shoal called the shears; the tail of which makes out from the shore about |