dan, who was removed by the President, August 17, 1867. During an interim of a few months the command was held by the officer next in rank, Brevet Major-General Charles Griffin, and, after his death, by General Mower.

The Military Division of the Missouri, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sherman, embraces the Departments of Dakota, the Platte, and the Missouri, commanded respectively by Brevet Major-General A. H. Terry, Brevet Major-General C. C. Augur, and Major-General P. H. Sheridan. The chief scene of active operations of the army during the year has been in the Indian territories. In the latter part of the year 1866, the garrisons were much reduced by the mustering out of the volunteer troops, and before a sufficient number of regulars could be forwarded to replace them, the Indians availed themselves of this favorable opportunity to commence hostilities.

The Department of the Cumberland comprises the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia, under the command of MajorGeneral G. H. Thomas.

The Department of the Lakes embraces the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, under the command of Brevet Major-General J. C. Robinson, who has a few troops garrisoning the forts on the Northern frontier.

The Department of Washington is under the command of Brevet Major-General W. H. Emory.

The Military Division of the Pacific, under the command of Major-General H. W. Halleck, comprises the Department of the Columbia, under Major-General F. Steele, and the Department of California, under Brevet Major-General E. O. C. Ord. The latter succeeded Major-General Irvin McDowell, December 28, 1867. The newly-acquired Territory of Aliaska, in Russian America, is also embraced in this military division. The troops have been employed in protecting settlers against the Indians in Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, Nevada, and California.

The Department of the East, comprising the New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, was until recently under the command of Major-General George G. Meade. The order of the President, December 28, 1867, transferred him to the Third Military District, and left the department in command of the officer next in rank.

The disposition and number of troops comprising the active army of the United States at the close of the year 1867 was as follows: In the unreconstructed States-First Military District, General J. M. Schofield, twelve posts and thirty-two companies; Second District, General E. R. S. Canby, twenty-three posts, thirtyfive companies; Third District, General George G. Meade, twenty-two posts and forty-eight companies; Fourth District, General Alvin C. Gillem (temporarily), twenty-five posts, forty-four companies; and the Fifth District,

General W. S. Hancock, fifty-three posts and one hundred and four companies, making a total of one hundred and thirty-five posts and two hundred and sixty-three companies. Averaging each company at seventy men, gives a force of over eighteen thousand.

In the other departments the following list comprises the force of the East: General T. W. Sherman, seventeen posts and thirty companies; Washington, General W. H. Emory, four posts, twenty-seven companies; California, General E. O. C. Ord, assigned thirty-one posts, fifty-two companies; Dakota, General A. H. Terry, fifteen posts, forty companies; the Cumberland, General George H. Thomas, seventeen posts, thirty companies; the lakes, General John Pope, five posts, eight companies; the Platte, General C. C. Augur, fifteen posts, sixty-three companies; Missouri, General P. H. Sheridan, twenty-seven posts, seventy-eight companies; and of the Columbia, General L. H. Rousseau, sixteen posts and twenty-two companies. Total, one hundred and forty-seven posts and three hundred and fifty companiesabout twenty-five thousand troops-making a grand total of forty-three thousand.

On the 3d of January, 1867, Mr. Paine, of Wisconsin, introduced into the House of Representatives, from the Committee on the Militia, a bill to supersede the existing systems of State militia, and to organize in their stead, throughout the several States and Territories of the Union, a uniform national militia, under the joint control of the Governors or Commandersin-chief of the respective States and Territories, and of an Assistant Secretary of War, specially appointed for the purpose by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. The bill provides for the enrolment of all male able-bodied citizens or naturalized citizens of the United States between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, including negroes, and excluding Indians not taxed, idiots, lunatics, criminals, etc., and authorizes the formation from this enrolment of a volunteer National Guard of active militia, to serve for three years, and to "consist of two regiments of infantry in each Congressional district and Territory represented in the Congress of the United States, and also such other forces of infantry, cavalry, and artillery as the respective States and Territories so represented may organize, arm, and equip in accordance with the system prescribed in this act." Provision is made, by the administration of an oath, against the admission into the National Guard of any who have either borne arms against the United States, or given aid and encouragement to those who have done so; who have accepted office under, or yielded a voluntary support to, any authority hostile to the Government. Separate company and regimental organizations are provided for colored troops; and the number of the latter enlisted in each Congressional district is to be made "proportionate to the white and colored population thereof." The forces of the National

Guard are to be separate and distinct in each State, and "the organization of companies, regiments, brigades, and divisions is to be that of the Army of the United States," except that all commissioned officers of regiments and companies are to be elected by such regiments and companies respectively, and commissioned by the Governor, as at present. Four regiments of infantry are to constitute one brigade, and two brigades one division. The discipline, regulations, tactics, arms, accoutrements, equipments, uniform, colors, etc., are to be those of the regular army. The commander-in-chief in each State, and an adjutant-general, to be commissioned by the Governor, are to receive compensation for their services from their States and Territories. Both officers and privates are each to receive from the United States two dollars per diem for each day spent at drills, encampments, etc., to the amount of ten dollars per annum; each division, brigade, regimental, and company commander, when responsible for public property, is to receive fifty dollars per annum; each regimental and company commander, when so responsible, is to receive in addition fifty dollars per annum for the rent of an armory; and each commissioned officer is to receive twenty dollars per annum for clothing, and required to provide himself with the uniform prescribed in the Army regulations. Arms, clothing, camp equipments, etc., for companies, regiments, brigades, and divisions, are to be furnished from the several departments of the General Government, on requisitions approved by the Governor and the Assistant Secretary of War; and it is made the duty of the latter, with the assistance of the staff-officers of the Adjutant General's, the QuartermasterGeneral's, and the Ordnance Departments of the United States, to issue clothing, arms, and equipments, and orders for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia; to receive duplicate returns, reports, and all official communications made to the Governors or commanders-in-chief in the States and Territories; to take charge of the armories and other public property, and to exercise all authority over the militia conferred upon Congress by the Constitution. The duties of the Governors, as commanders-in-chief in their respective States and Territories, are to commission all officers, including generals of division and brigade; to train, inspect, and discipline the National Guard; to receive reports, returns, and other official communications; and to exercise all authority over the militia reserved by the Constitution to the States. At least three days for drilling are to be appointed annually by law in the States and Territories; and, under the direction of the Assistant Secretary of War, a brigade and regimental encampment is ordered on the last Monday in September annually, as also a semi-annual inspection by the officers of the National Guard, and a biennial one by the officers of the regular army. The National Guard may be called out by the Governor or Legislature of any State to

suppress local insurrection, or by Congress in time of war or rebellion; and when ordered into the service of the United States they are to be subject to the rules and articles of war, and to the regulations of the army.

The bill further provides for the establishment in convenient locations throughout the country, under the superintendence of the Assistant Secretary of War, of four schools of the National Guard, which are to furnish in future all the scholars for the United States Military Academy at West Point. These schools are to be provided by the Government with the same course of instruction, rules, and regulations, and their cadets with the same uniform, pay, and allowances, as are prescribed for the Academy. Four cadets at large from each school are to be appointed annually to the Academy, in addition to the usual appointments from each Congressional district. The graduates of the schools are to serve three years in the National Guard, or in the Army, Navy, or Marine Corps of the United States.

This bill, although acted upon in the House, failed to pass Congress and become a law.

ASIA. The closer connection which, on January 1, 1867, was established between the United States and Eastern Asia by the opening of a new steamship line, proves a great incentive to the more rapid regeneration of the eastern Asiatic countries. In Japan the change in international intercourse has been specially notable. In 1866 a new Tycoon came into power, who was the acknowledged leader of the party friendly to foreigners. Early in 1867 the old Mikado, or Emperor, died, and was succeeded by a young man of sixteen years, who may naturally be supposed to be more accessible to modern ideas. In April, the representatives of the leading foreign powers, upon the invitation of the new Tycoon, had an important conference with the Japanese Government at Osaca, the greatest commercial city of the empire. The result was entirely satisfactory, the Japanese Government giving formal notice that, on the 1st of January, 1868, they would open to foreigners the cities of Yedo and Osaca, the port of Hiogo, and another port on the west coast of Japan. A new treaty of commerce was concluded with Denmark, so that Japan is now in regular communication with the United States, England, France, Holland, Prussia, Switzerland, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, and Denmark. An invitation from the Emperor of France to a participation in the Paris Exhibition was eagerly accepted. Specimens of the country's products, manufactures, and works of art were sent, many of the people went over, and even a younger brother of the Tycoon proceeded to Paris, attended by a suite commensurate with his rank and the greatness of the occasion. Another special embassy was sent to the United States to give new assurances of the regard of Japan for the people of the United States, and to look after some commercial interests. Toward the close of the

year, a great change seems to have been effected in the home government. The Tycoon resigned his position, and it was reported that the Mikado himself, aided by a council of Daimios, would assume the reins of the government. Finally, the Japanese Government took the first definite step toward establishing a permanent diplomatic connection with foreign governments, by appointing a consul-general at San Francisco. This appointment, it is expected, will soon be followed by the appointment of Japanese ministers at the capitals of the great countries of Europe and America. (See JAPAN.)

In China, the influence of foreigners shows itself every year more plainly in the numerous ports, and the masses of the Chinese population are rapidly accustoming themselves to a commercial intercourse with strangers. Christian missionaries penetrate in all directions into the interior, and they are, on the whole, satisfied with the protection which the Chinese Government extends to them. China is now on the eve of a revision of the treaty of 1859, which is the basis of the present friendly relations between China and the Christian Governments. The Chinese Government placed a special confidence in the Hon. Anson Burlingame, minister of the United States in Pekin, and offered to him the appointment of special envoy to confer, in its name, with the chief foreign Governments on the revision of the treaty. (See CHINA.)

India is making steady progress in the establishment of schools and the diffusion of knowledge, and the increasing class of intelligent natives appreciate the advantages which India is deriving from the rule of England and from the influence of Christianity. Both the peace at home and the peaceable relations with the neighboring states remained, on the whole, undisturbed; though considerable alarni was felt by the British authorities at the advance of Russia in Central Asia. A number of the native troops were employed for the Abyssinian expedition, and confidence was felt both in their loyalty and availability. (See INDIA.)

The steady progress of Russia in Central Asia, and the consolidation of the new acquisitions into Russian provinces, is one of the most important stages in the steady transformation of Asia. The few independent Khans in Central Asia are too weak to resist the advance of Russia, and their countries cannot escape annexation either to Russia or to India. Civil war continued throughout the year to devastate Affghanistan, which, like other weak nations, seems to be unable to maintain a national independence.

France again enlarged her territory in Farther India by annexing, in addition to the provinces of Ben-Hoâ, Jia-Dinh (Saigon), and Dinh-Tuong (Hitho), which had been ceded by the treaty of 1862, those of Vinh-Long, Hangiang, and Hatien. The French now possess the whole of Lower Cochin-China. It is commonly

believed now to be the fixed policy of the French Government to annex, in the course of time, the whole of Farther India.

In the south the Dutch will obtain a new lease of power when the Liberals triumph in the abolition of serfdom, and, if not, Australia is pushing northward, and will occupy New Guinea, and force Spain to do its duty to the Philippines, or withdraw.

Though five times the size of Europe, Asia is more and more becoming dependent on Europe. At present it contains only nine kings not dependent on England, Russia, Holland, Spain, France, and the Porte. Allowing that Arabia indirectly acknowledges the last, and that the Mussulmans of Eastern Tartary have not yet established their power, there are only the Shah of Persia, the Khan of Khiva, the Ameer of Bokhara, the Ameer of Affghanistan, the Emperor of China, the Mikado of Japan, the Emperor of Anam, the King of Burmah, and the King of Siam. If we omit the Emperor of China, Russia alone rules a vaster and England a more populous and wealthy Asiatic empire than all combined. There can be little doubt that the Khan, the two Ameers, and the Kings of Burmah and Siam, if they maintain their independence at all, will be feudatories of a European power. The only really independent sovereigns in Asia will be those of Turkey, Persia, China, and Japan.

The extension of the telegraph wires through Asia promises to have a great influence on the progress of civilization. An English paper of India gives the following account of the Asiatic telegraphs about the middle of the year: “The telegraph and courier service through Russia and Mongolia via Kiatchta, the frontier town, is improving. The time occupied by the couriers between Kiatchta and Tientsin has now been reduced to twelve days. The telegraph wires are complete from London to Kiatchta, and seem to work well, a telegram having been received in fourteen hours. Lieutenant W. H. Pierson, R. E., who inspected the Persian telegraph from Teheran to Julfa on the Russian frontier last August, gives a bad account of the line. Its great defect is its distance from the post road and its consequent inaccessibility. A great portion of the line is condemned, and the Shah is recommended to reconstruct it on a better principle. The offices at Kasvin, Zenjan, Myaneh, and Julfa are only supplied with one Morse instrument each, and from the way which that instrument is connected and disconnected with the line at discretion of a Persian signaller, they can at present only be regarded as impediments to the steady and rapid transmission of messages between Tabreez and Teheran. On the other hand, the Russian wire in the Caucasus is well spoken of. The line itself is a double one, exceedingly well constructed, the posts are very large and strong, and renewed every three years; the insulators are very good. The line is everywhere close to the post road.

The majority of the Christian population of Asiatic Russia and Asiatic Turkey belong to the Greek Church. Besides, there are a number of other denominations, as Armenians, Nestorians, etc. (See EASTERN CHURCHES.) To the East Asiatic religions a population of about 600,000,000 belong. The number of Mohammedans in Asia is estimated at 50,000,000. The number of Jews will hardly be more than about 500,000.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. The year 1867 was rich in astronomical phenomena; some of them of a kind that appealed powerfully to the popular sense of the wonderful, and also excited the interest of scientific men. The most remarkable of those events, on this side of the Atlantic, was the meteoric shower of November 14th, which occurred in favorable weather; and every stage of its progress was noted by skilful observers in various parts of the country (see METEORS). The appearance of Jupiter without his satellites (as the phenomenon is commonly described), and the opposition of Mars, afforded opportunity for the study of those planets under peculiarly interesting circumstances. Herr Schmidt's alleged discovery of recent volcanic action in the moon by which the crater Linné was supposed to have been filled up and a new crater formed, gave rise to an earnest discussion among selenographers as to the probabilities of such an occurrence. The year was not distinguished by the publication of any striking new theory, except that of Schiaparelli, Adams, and others, which seeks to identify the orbits of comets with those of meteoric showers; but a decided advance can be noticed along the whole line of astronomical science.

The lunar crater Linné.-The reported discovery by Herr Schmidt, of Athens, of a remarkable change in the crater Linné gave fresh interest to the observation of lunar phenomena during the year. The change apparently consisted in the filling up of the crater

by an eruption of lava and the formation of a cone or mound in the centre, similar to those produced by volcanic eruptions on the Earth. The proofs of this alteration in the structure of Linné are as follows: The crater has been a familiar object with lunar observers, easily identified by the light spot which it exhibits in high illumination, and the shadow cast in the hollow of the crater by its sides, in lower altitudes of the sun. Now, if the crater were filled up with lava, it is evident that this peculiar shadow would no longer exist; and that the summit of the crater would present merely a light spot to the observer, at all angles of the sun when the rays fell upon it. But if, in addition to the filling up of the crater, a mound should be formed upon the new surface, then that object, if sufficiently large to be seen from the Earth, would cast a shadow, entirely distinct in its appearance from that thrown by the walls of the crater. These were the indications of change observed by Herr Schmidt, and explained by him upon the hypothesis presented. In lower altitudes of the Sun and close upon the phase, where in former times the crater shadow was plainly to be seen, no crater is now visible (according to Herr Schmidt), but there appears in good light, with magnifying powers of from 300 to 600, a hill or mound, estimated to be about 1,918 feet in diameter and between 30 and 40 feet high. Several astronomers confirm the observations of Herr Schmidt. Others, after a careful study of Linné, maintain that no change whatever has taken place in the crater, and that appearances to the contrary are to be explained either by defective observations, by unfavorable conditions of our atmosphere, by variations in the angles under which we see lunar objects, or by different incidences of the solar light falling upon them.

Mr. Birt observed Linné in April and May, 1867, and says that he could not detect any object on its surface. With regard to variations

in the extent of the light spot or whitish cloud, which marks the crater, he says he has observed phenomena of the same kind on the Mare Crisium; and about seventy sets of measures of Dionysius yield the same result, though not to so great an extent as in the case of Linné. Mr. Huggins has published a view of Linné as seen by him May 11. It represents an oval white spot and to the west of its centre a white ring surrounding a black spot. He remarks that at the time the diagram was made the shallow saucer-like form of Linné was not seen, but he had detected it on other occasions. July 9th, he made other observations with a power of 500, and gives the following measurements:

Length of the bright spot............... 7.85
Breadth...

Diameter of small crater.......

6".14 1.71

In Comptes Rendus, June 17, 1867, appears a paper by Wolf on this interesting subject. He says that since the 10th of May he had noticed that the crater Linné continued to exist, but with a much smaller diameter than that indicated in the maps of Lohrmann, Beer, or Mädler. In the centre of the white spot could be seen a circular black hole, bordered on the west by a portion of ground which seemed raised above the remainder of the spot. This circular black hole, Wolf regards as a deep crater-deeper than most of the craters that surround it, judging from the comparative intensity of the shadows. He thinks that the lustre of Linné has not changed-its total diameter remaining about the same-but that a comparison of maps indicates a real alteration, for some of those maps figure a large crater occupying all the space now filled by the white spot. Wolf employed magnifying powers of 235, 380, and 620. In De la Rue's large photograph of the moon (1858), Bessel and Sulpicius Gallus exhibit indications of an interior shadow, while Linné figures as a white spot; and the same is seen, though clearer, in the great photograph obtained by Mr. Rutherfurd, of New York, March 4, 1865. Therefore, Wolf concludes that, "apart from the indications supplied by the maps of Lohrmann, Beer, and Mädler, to which may be opposed the counterindications of Lahire and Schröter, we only possess a single positive document testifying that Linné has undergone any change, and that is the affirmation of Schmidt that his crater and drawings of 1841 represent the object differently to what it is now seen."

Father Secchi sent to the French Academy, from Rome, February 14, 1867, a letter in which he says, that, on the 10th of that month, between 9 and 10 P. M., the crater Linné entered into the sun's light, and close by the limiting circle a small prominent point was seen with a little shadow, and round this point an irregular circular corona very flattened. The weakness of the light and the proximity of the moon to the horizon did not allow the observations to be prolonged. On the 11th, in the evening, Linné had already advanced into the light, and,

at seven o'clock, a very small crater was distinctly seen surrounded by a brilliant white aureole, which glittered against the dark ground of M. Serenitatis. The size of the orifice of the crater was at most of a second, and the aureole was a little larger than Sulpicius Gallus. Father Secchi does not doubt that a change has taken place in Linné, and thinks it probable that an eruption has filled the ancient crater with a material white enough to look bright against the dark ground before mentioned.

New Map of the Moon.-The Lunar Committee of the British Association published during the year two sections of their map on a scale of 220 inches to the moon's diameter, comprehending two areas of 27 superficial degrees, which are equal to 17,688 square miles English in the two. On these sections, printed red, the planets, craters, mountains, valleys, and other objects are laid down in outline; each known object being distinguished by a reference number to the text which accompanies the two sections. The portion of the moon embraced by the sections extends 6 degrees westerly from the first meridian and 10 degrees southwardly from the equator. Photographs taken by M. De la Rue and by Mr. Rutherfurd (New York) have contributed very materially to the determination of outlines and the insertion of small objects not discernible under the high illumination of the moon. Several of the smaller objects have been inserted from telescopic observations. The whole of the work has been executed independently of the labors of previous selenographers, with the exception of points of the first order and a few special instances. It is especially stated in the text that the map is not intended to be perfect or complete, but merely a guide to observers in obtaining data for constructing a complete map of the moon. For this purpose numerous observations are essential, and with a view to accomplish it, the areas are divided into zones of 2 degrees of latitude each, which are so allotted that every zone of 1 degree may be examined by two independent observers, the ground of each overlapping and dovetailing into that of the other. The intention of this examination is to endeavor to fix, by the aid of two independent observers, the exact state of a designated lunar object at a given epoch; for, if from the observations in a given zone, the characters and appearances of the object in that zone can be settled beyond dispute, from the testimony of two witnesses and authoritatively published by such a body as the Lunar Committee, it follows that the record so published can be referred to at any future time and the question of fixity or change of any of the objects during the interval definitely settled. The Committee recommend that each object be examined by the observers when the objects are near the morning and evening terminators, and also on the days succeeding and preceding the passage of the terminators over the areas-through a period corresponding to at least three lunations—and that a record be