mind as one image, when our eyes see it; we do not, | so that the Germans have but one word for that which be it repeated, see youth, blackness and that which to the English appeared as two different ideas; but the characterises a horse from other animals, separately and English word faith expresses often something for which disjunctively; nor are these ideas conveyed separately the German has a different word, namely treue, so that into our mind where, being joined, they might produce here the German idiom has two words for the English the entire and undivided image and idea of a young one. These interesting inquiries into the division of black horse. When thus the image of a young black ideas, and the difference of this division in different horse stands in our mind, we may separate the idea of languages, by which we discover a different affinity blackness, but leave those of youth and horse un-ana- and affiliation of thoughts and notions, a different lyzed, and say: a black coll; or we may separate the perception of things and a consequently different ramiidea of youth, and leave those of blackness and horse fication of ideas-in short a different logic of nations, together, as the Germans have a word for black horse, may be continued without end. They show us, frenamely Rappe, so that they would say: ein junger quently, the most delicate affinities of thought, and the Rappe (a young black horse). Thus the Germans acutest perception of the various phenomena within have a distinct word for a white horse; they have, ourselves or without, uncover deficiencies, and disclose however, also a word for colt, and may express the idea a blunt want of feeling or perception, where, previously, of the case before us, precisely like the English; a we had felt no want or suspected no barbarism-no black colt. looseness of expression. I will give but a few more instances of a different division of ideas, that, perhaps, I may induce one or the other reader to approach by this means, the wonderful workings of the human mind, and to lift the veil which covers the subtlest organizations of language and with it the delicate operations of the mind; for language is the cast of the soul.

This dissecting of one image we best call the division of ideas the most important subject, perhaps in the whole province of the philosophy of languages. In the case, I just used to illustrate this subject, we have seen that different languages may proceed on a different division of ideas. They actually do so in most cases, and on this very point rests, mainly, the great advantage of studying foreign languages, as we shall see pre-feel or ought to feel for one another as tenderly as a sently. I shall only add here a few more examples.

A father is or ought to be a friend to his child; friends

father feels for his offspring; in short between a father and his son and between two friends exists or ought to exist, the tie of good will. The inhabitants of Lord North's Island, therefore, have but one word for father and friend, (Vocabulary, appended to Holden's Narrative of the Shipwreck on the Pelew Islands, Boston, 1836). This is a representation of ideas, or as we, accustomed to designate father and friend by different words, would say, a connexion of ideas, which is not much more surprising to a German, than that the English or Americans, disliking the words lover and sweetheart, apply the word friend to one who loves a girl, with the view of marrying her; nor more surpris

We might say: the young one of a female of the genus bos; instead of which we say the calf of a cow, The English language has left the image of the calf and of the cow un-analyzed and provides us, therefore, with separate and distinct words for each. When we speak of a hare, we have no such specific words, because when the mind receives the image of a hare, it receives no striking sign along with it, which would indicate, whether the hare is male or female, young or old; but when the phenomenon consists of an individual of the genus hog, the marks of the male are striking and we have a word for it: boar. In many cases, however, previous division of ideas has provided the mind withing, perhaps, to an Englishman, than that the unedugeneric words, by the combination of which a more specific case, or an individual phenomenon can be clearly designated. The English language has the words old and man, and the combination of the two words designates an old man. Yet other idioms have for this idea one distinct word, which, consequently, produces a more definite, compact, and vivid image in the mind of the hearer; for the one word is more energetic than the two, as in Latin senex, in German Greis, in French viellard; and old woman is in German Greisinn, in French viellarde.

cated Germans are in the constant habit of using the word friend instead of relation; though there is in German a distinct word for this idea. Friendship is thus used for all the relations in the aggregate.

It cannot be denied that this un-analyzed idea of father and friend, with those barbarous and forlorn PelewIslanders, is beautiful and touching; while it will be admitted, that it would be highly inconvenient with a tribe, at all civilized, with whom, the necessity of designating the two different relations frequently occurs. The law of inheritance alone would render this nonWhat is true with regard to the different division of division of idea extremely inconvenient. Still, we are ideas applied to phenomena of the visible world, is ap- very apt to wonder how it is possible for nations to get plicable, likewise, to the phenomena of the invisible along without certain words, which in our own language world, or to both jointly; it is in fact in a much higher designate quite distinct and different things, altogether degree so. Langue in French means tongue; as the forgetting that there are numberless deficiencies and tongue however is a most important instrument in even barbarisms in our own languages, with which we speaking, the idiom from which the French derived nevertheless contrive to get along, or which we have, the word langue, designated by the same word what perhaps, never felt before. That father and friend should we express by tongue and language, as in fact we, too, be expressed, with the Pelew-Islanders, by the same use the word tongue for language. On the other hand, word, appears to a German indeed not so great a dethat, which our word language designates in many cases, ficiency, as that there are no separate words in the is expressed by a separate word in French, namely English, French or any of the Western European Langage. The German word Glaube signifies both that idioms for the German Mensch (homo, the genus) and which is expressed by the English word faith and belief, | Mann (vir, the male of the genus homo) as in Greek

languages, and at the same time of a different division of ideas can, perhaps, be given than the Latin res, the English thing for which the Germans have two entirely distinct words Sache and Ding, and the Greeks #paypa and xoñpa, which do not in all cases correspond to the

'avρbomoσ and 'avno, so the man, homme, ombre, &c. | want of a corresponding word as well as of a corresdesignate both, man, in as much as he is contradistin- |ponding division of ideas will be felt. The number of guished to other animals, or to angels, and in as much as instances might be indefinitely increased by simply he is contradistinguished to woman, or child; and it must looking at any dictionary. be left to the connexion of the words, to express which Words describe a circle within which lies their meanof the two very different meanings-the one indicating ing, and there can hardly be found in the different lanthe species, the other the sex-it is intended to convey; guages any two such circles, which cover precisely the and it is expressed by the connexion in many or most same space. The circle of one word may cover half cases with sufficient clearness. In fact, as long as one of the circle of the corresponding word in another lanword designates two or three very different things or guage, or the greater part, while part of its own circle ideas, little difficulty arises; but when the same word is covered by another word in the first language, yet designates ideas nearly related to each other, or differ-again by this same word may be covered part of ent shades of the same generic idea, then there exists a the circle of quite another word, with an infinite variety danger of losing the true meaning. If a Frenchman | of affiliation of ideas. The French word souverainité pronounces the sound of sans, which may mean without, | signifies frequently what the English language expresses sense, hundred, he feels (for sans, sens, cent and sent are by souverainty, but also something different, else the all pronounced in the same way), there is not much dictionary of the French Academy could not give, as an danger that he will be misunderstood; but if he uses instance, of the use of this word the expression: souvethe word sentir, it may be difficult, in some cases, to rainité limitée. Limited soverainty has no sense in a decide at once whether he mean to feel or to smell. If language in which souverainty signifies that plenitude a German uses the word sein, it will cause no difficulty of power which draws from its own source, and from to distinguish whether he means to be or his, but if he no other. No more striking instance of the diversity uses the word farbe it may occasion some doubt whe-of space covered by corresponding words of different ther he means color or dye; though he might have used for the latter, the word Färbestoff.-The Germans have one word to designate all the brothers and sisters of an Individual, namely the word Geschwister, as the English language has the word parents to designate both mother and father. The Germans have likewise a word ex-two German terms. pressive of the idea of parents, but they have none corresponding to parent, which means the male or female parent indiscriminately. The Arabians have one word for death, another for noble death, i. c. the death on the battle field or of pining love. We have no such word. We, and most nations have a word for the idea of a child, which has lost both parents or its father, an orphan, but the Swedes and Danes say: fatherless child, and an orphan asylum in Swedish is barnhus for faderlösa barn (children-house for fatherless children).—Movoɩkòs signified in Greece one who practised the arts sacred to the muses, especially those which had connexion with the sound; hence, a musician, singer, poet, orator; and povoký signified not only music, poetry, rhetoric; but also all scientific and artistic accomplishment. We have no corresponding word, and could not, by any possibility, call up by any expression, in the mind of our hearer all and the same which presented itself to the mind of a Greek when the comprehensive word Poveikh was pronounced. They and we have started from different divisions of ideas. The corresponding English word to the German Geist is mind, to the German Secle is soul; still, though Geist and Seele mean in many cases precisely what the English express by mind and soul, they often mean things which cannot be expressed by mind or soul. We see, moreover, that the original division of the phenomenon: internal man, was different in German from what it is in English; for the Germans have besides the words Geist and Seele, a third: Gemüth, which, so far from being superfluous, is one of the most indispensable words in the German idiom. This word may serve, also, as an instance how this branch of comparative philology often shows us deficiencies in our vernacular tongue, for as soon as the precise meaning of the German Gemüth has been understood, the necessity of having it and the absolute

If we take different groups of corresponding words in various languages, such as: Force, Strength, Power, Might, Ability, Faculty, Opportunity, in English; Vis, Potentia, Potestas, Facultas, Imperium, in Latin; ρώμη, αλκή, ἰσχὺς, σθένος, δύναμις, κράτος, βία and the many words which express opportunity and occasion, in Greek; Gewall, Stärke, Kraft, Macht, Herrschaft, Obergewalt, Twang, Gelegenheit in German, two things become apparent at once; first, that it is impossible for the student, who observes, for the first time, these various groups, to penetrate their true meaning and correspondence with each other, without deriving much benefit from it for the discerning faculty of his mind; secondly, that, if his vernacular tongue is English, for instance, he must be lead to perceive entirely new divisions of ideas, becomes, in fact, acquainted with new ideas, for which some of the other idioms have distinct words, his own, however, not; ideas, therefore, which never represented themselves to his mind.

This difference of the division of ideas is greater the more independantly of each other two languages have developped themselves-a circumstance still more increased by the fact that the words of all original languages, designating phenomena of the internal world (intellectual phenomena), or abstract ideas are, if not compounds, faded metaphors. Man is struck first by the sensual world; his senses must give him notions; at a later period he applies the words, thus gained, in thousand different ways, to invisible phenomena, or abstract ideas. These metaphors carry of course certain associations along with them, and retain certain affiliations, which in fact coincides, again, with the different division of ideas.

From what I have stated so far I intend now to draw some conclusions.

It is this different division of ideas which renders a

good translation of a work, transcending at all, the limits of a bare statement of facts, so difficult. Had we words in one language which corresponded precisely to other words in another, nothing could be easier than translating; for no one would consider it a difficult task to learn a grammar and acquire an extensive vocabulary. It is this, which renders the task of a lexicographer an extremely difficult one, and a labor which can be solved but by a truly philosophic mind. The more the two languages stand apart, the further they are removed from each other by their origin and development, the greater the difficulty. Thus is a truly philosophic mind required to write a dictionary of an ancient language in a modern one; thus it is far more difficult to write a German dictionary for Frenchmen, than an Italian; or to translate German into French, than Italian.

I have shown the great advantage to be derived from the study of foreign languages and that the advantage increases with the essential and original difference of the foreign tongue from our own. It is an advantage which cannot be supplied by any other study, for it has a peculiar and distinct character of its own. It remains to show what peculiar advantage there is for us, living in the nineteenth century, in studying ancient languages especially the Greek and Latin. In order to show this I must recur to my previous observations on the fact that phenomena strike our mind as one, whole and entire thing, un-analyzed, undissected.

I said that if this is the case the natural consequence would be that we had words for specific phenomena, and thus it is, in a certain degree, with all languages. We have the words bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf; It is this different division of ideas which renders the we have buck, roe, fawn; we have to smile, to laugh, study of foreign languages so salutary to our mind. to titter, to grin; we have speaking, talking, chatterWe enter into a new logic, we gain from the point of ing, murmuring, muttering, screaming, stuttering, stamview of a foreign language only, a perfectly clear per-mering, uttering, roaring, barking, lowing, cooing, proception of our vernacular tongue; we become better nouncing, singing, whispering, crowing, &c. All these acquainted with the true meaning of certain ideas, and latter words might be analyzed into more general or we sharpen and point our judgment and the discrimi-generic terms. Each of them is expressive of producing nating power of our mind by entering into the new division of ideas and inquiring into the precise extent covered by one or the other word. And all this is effected in a higher degree the more distant the studied language is in structure and origin from our own; so that an Englishman will derive vastly more philosophical benefit from studying German or Greek than from the study of French. There is a deep meaning in the saying of Charles V, that we become as often new men as we learn a new language.

sounds by the mouth in different ways, for different purposes, with different effects and by differing beings, which different ways, purposes, effects and beings might be mentioned; and, thus, we would be enabled to express, by the proper combination of many generic terms, the specific idea of speaking, crowing, roaring, &c. With what trouble, what infinite tediousness however!

We do not only find words, however, which express the main characteristics of the various phenomena in It is for this reason that the study of foreign poets one word; but also the various relations, in which a becomes so necessary; for the poets use purposely the certain thing may stand, or with the expression of words with their various associations of ideas, in order which we may be desirous of accompanying the idea to say much by few words, to call up feelings, reminis- of certain actions. Patris, terræ, express not only the cences, ideas with the wand of one word in the mind idea of father and earth, but a certain relation in which of the hearer or reader. On the other hand it is equally they stand-relations which we have to indicate by necessary to study the philosophic works of foreign separate words. And here again a difference of the literature, because the philosopher has to define dis-division of ideas appears; for when the Roman wished tinctly and acutely. And hence we see the division of to indicate that a certain thing-the subject—acted ideas of a foreign language with greater perspecuity. Thirdly it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with translations of works in our own language into foreign idioms, because by them too we see how the foreign translator has been obliged to contrive by a variety of means to give with his words, founded upon a different division of ideas, the true meaning of our mother tongue.

upon another-the object—he indicated this relation by a change in the object, e. g. pater amat filium. There are, however, idioms which express indeed this relation; not however by a change in the object, but in the subject, as some of the South Sea Island languages do. They therefore show, not the being acted upon, as the Romans did, but the acting upon. They would show this relation in the above instance by an inflexion

It is the different division of ideas in the different of pater not of filius.—When the Greek wanted to exidioms, which affords us so great a pleasure in study-press the idea of being about to strike, and that the ing a foreign tongue, for we discover entirely new manifestations of the human mind. This pleasure is greatly enhanced when we succeed, at last, in making the foreign idiom our own, when we can speak it, write it, think it. It is a true victory of the human mind. Hence, too, the great attraction of the study of such languages as the Greek, or Sanscrita.

Hence, finally, the fact that some languages are more fit for one or the other purpose, one for description, another for lyric poetry, another for the intercourse of men, one for metaphysics, another for politics, another still for disquisitions of a scientific kind, and still another for commerce or technological terms.

individual, about to strike is of the female sex, he said rúpovoa, in one, single word. We want a number of words to express it, and only can arrive at the idea, in a very circuitous and a very conventional manner, which the juxta-position of the words: to be about to strike, certainly is.

It is not necessary here to investigate whether those grammatical forms which indicate one whole phenomenon or relation with one word, whilst we are obliged to arrive at the same end by a combination of many words only, were originally likewise a combination of several words, and grew simply out of a fusion of them. This inquiry, which has occupied many philologists, would

lead us far from the object of these remarks; nor would of human languages and their influence upon the intelit be pertinent in this place.

Of all the known languages, none, as far as I know, contain so many words expressive of an entire phenomenon, which appears to us, as soon as it strikes our mind, to be analyzed into various ideas, and which we express, therefore, by different words, as the languages of the North American Indians.

lectual development of mankind-an essay of the deepest interest, by William von Humboldt, first read in the Berlin Academy, and now reprinted in Vol. I, 4to, of his philological essays, published by Alexander von Humboldt in 1836). This is not a happy word—be it said with sincere reverence for that truly great philologer, equally distinguished for acute penetration and lofty, comprehensive views-if applied to these forms, for glueing together means fastening by glue things which were separated before. This, however, is taking a partial view of the matter; those words appear to us glued together because our language designates the ideas contained in their words, separately; but they do not appear so to them. It is but one idea which they express. We are the analyzers, not they the joiners; they would have the same right to call our process of expressing one idea, e. g. giving something to eat by four different words, laceration.

In the Mohegan language netáchgan means brother, but gegapan, an unmarried brother, as the French use garçon for an unmarried male adult; or the English bachelor and spinster for unmarried male and female adults respectively. The younger brother always addressed the elder one by netachgan, and him who is younger chesem as the French have ainé and cadet for elder and younger among brothers. Thus the younger sister called the elder mees, but the elder sister called the younger chesem. Tachamókku meant to give something to eat, nucktegan meant I have but one child. Below, above, within, &c. are in this language as in the Still the word ought to be retained in comparative other Indian idioms never to be found separate but philology, but in order to designate that process by always as verb, i. e. to be above, to be below, &c. which expressions are formed, such as: church-yard, The same is the case with regard to most adjectives horseman, Löffelgans, port-hole, heart-felt, bed-ridden, and substantives. They could not say good, but must respublica, horse-reddish, roi-citoyen, pater familias, zodvapsay I am good, or he is good, &c. the idea of the subject, xía, Weingeist, inkstand, peacefull, peuple-roi, Obstbaum, and, consequently, of the pronoun not having been sepa- womanlike, únówλcos, innoñóτaμos, evayyídiov &c. In all rated by them. There is no verb for to be, but for to be these cases, two separate words have been joined, in present, to be absent, &c. In short the verb is the main order to designate a third object. So it might be said word of the language; it carries every thing within its that such words as womanhood, dukedom, freedom, were bosom. Nothing is imagined without the idea of action formed by agglutination, because hood and dom were or of being, as, indeed, nothing can appear to us except originally separate words. Whether the two aggluti in a certain state of being or action. They were not nated words be written in one, as horseman, or in two without some division of ideas, as we have shown that as church-yard, makes no difference. This has only being without this would amount to being without lan-reference to orthography, and is purely conventional; guage; still so foreign is the division of ideas, of abstrac-with regard to language there exists no difference tion to the spirit of this language, that though a certain whatever. sound is regularly added to the idea of a verb, for instance that signifying child to that of chastising, still this sound does not appear independantly to designate the child, but is found only fused with some verb or other. Thus sasametsháha is punish the child, and nucktegchan I have but one child. It can be easily seen how great a difficulty was thus thrown into the way of those who endeavored to communicate to them things and ideas beyond the circle of their limited activity of mind, as for instance missionaries; for every object within was designated by a word intimately fused with another; all words had a specific meaning, designated we might almost say, a concrete case. Sasametschaha is punish in which the different words are placed, as for instance the child, and nsasamtschana we punish him. These instances are taken from M.S. No. 1579, in the library of the Philosophical Society in Philadelphia; it contains a grammar &c. written by Ioh. Jac. Schmick, a German, probably a missionary. Other Indian languages have arrived at a higher degree of division of ideas. I refer here to a highly interesting article on Indian Languages of America, in the Appendix to Vol. VI of the Encyclopædia Americana, for which work, my friend John Pickering, L. L.D. of Boston, had the great kindness to write it. The article has met with due acknowledgment in France and Germany, where a translation of it has been published.

This way of expressing whole phenomena or entire relations of a very modified kind, by one word, has been called agglutination. (On the variety of the structure

Mr. Duponceau, the venerable, learned and successful philologer at Philadelphia, has named those peculiar words by which is expressed, what appears to us a complexity of ideas, by a far more significant term. He calls them polysynthetic words, and languages in which they appear frequently or of which they form the main body of words polysynthetic languages. The opposite extreme to polysynthetic idioms are languages which consist but of single words, without inflexion, or grammatical synthesis, and which contrive to express the different relations, which other languages show by inflexions or synthetic means, merely by the position

the Chinese language. We will call this process of expressing ideas by mere juxtaposition of words parathesis, and languages founded upon this process parathetic idioms. (The term Parataxis would not do so well, as it had already with the ancients a distinct and different meaning.) The English language has a strongly parathetic character, for it expresses very few things or relations by inflexion or a change in the root or any other part of the word, nor does it allow extensively of the synthetic process. If I say: "When I shall go to the garden of my father in law," there are twelve words without any inflexion whatever, and receiving their meaning from their position only. Many languages, e. g. the Greek, would have expressed the whole of: when I shall go, by one word; "to the garden" would likewise have required but one word in many

languages, and so would the whole complex of ideas: it has come to a conclusion but produces still some efof my father in law.-Forms like "I'll" "I've" for Ifect, whether it relates to the grammatical subject or will, I have, are produced by the polysynthetic or, at not, which is the sex of the person to whom it relates, least, by a dyosynthetic process. or whether it has no sex; farther adding the idea of locality (as the Sanscrit locative does), of instrumentality (as the Sanscrit and Sclavonic casus instrumentalis or the Latin ablative do), of abstraction, of diminution or increase, of endearing or the contrary (as the Italian affix accio), of repetition (as the German In added to verbs does), of absence or presence (as the Lena Lenape does), &c. &c. What a crowd of ideas is not expressed by a single, brief word like λóny, or the word devatabyarcanaparo (deorum-cultui-addictus), which I take from an extract of the Sanscrit song of Nalus by Sloka, appended to Francis Bopp's Critical Grammar of the Sanscrita Language, Berlin 1834. With regard to the meaning of the words, therefore

1. A holophrastic character; if they abound in holophrastic expressions, or

In as far as the term, first introduced by Mr. Duponceau, applies to expressions-be they grammatical forms or not-which consist of several elements, previously separated, it is not only correct but fully adequate to the object. It matters not whether these elements are ever used as having an independant meaning of their own, separate and for themselves, or always in connexion with other words, yet always conveying the same meaning, as, for instance, the pronoun is in some languages of the American Indians, always found, not only connected, by way of affix or prefix, but fused with the very body of the verb. Still the term polysynthesis expresses a composition of previously separate parts, and we cannot designate by it those words which ex-languages have: press that, which to others, accustomed to analytic languages, appears as a complex of ideas, or that which actually is a complex of ideas, that is to say, which formed itself originally in the human mind by the composition of several ideas. Words, then, which express a complex of ideas we will call holophrastic words-words which express the whole thing or idea, undivided, un-analyzed. I know well that all holophrastic words are, if compared to still more comprehensive terms, analytic in their character, but in all cases of a similar kind, we must content ourselves with terms of comparative meaning. If we have seen that the Mohegans have a ral languages make use of several or of all of these word for giving something to eat, I would call it a holo-means. phrastic word, though it has an analytic character, if we consider that it only expresses to give something to eat, and not who gives to whom, on what conditions, whether he who gives was asked for, gave it willingly, or compelled to do so, and whatever else might be connected with the idea of giving something to eat. Words as the Latin res, the English to beat, the Greek Móyos, I would call poly phrastic.

2. An analytic character, if analytic words prevail. With regard to the means used to arrive at the expression of a complex or a series of ideas, languages are:

1. Synthetic,
2. Polysynthetic,
3. Parathetic, or
4. Inflective.

Shades exist between each of these classes, as seve

Both holophrastic and analytic words are more convenient for one or the other object of speech. And, again archolophrastic and compound holophrastic words are each in their way preferable for different purposes. I will mention here but a few instances.

Energy of style requires holophrastic words, for energetic writing or speaking makes it sometimes necessary that we express briefly and promptly a whole Words may have an originally holophrastic charac- complex of ideas, that we pour, as it were, a mass of ter-they may be archolophrastic, e. g. the Arabie word ideas into the mind-the heart of the hearer; at other for noble death; or they may have acquired their times, that we individualize, with equal brevity, one holophrastic character by composition, and this compo- particular thing, excluding all others with a distinct, sition again may have been effected by compounding sharp line; that we force the mind of the hearer to one words which had a meaning of their own, or by syn-precise spot, concentrate it on one single point. Who thetically uniting or fusing elements, which had no in- would miss words like clenching, plodding, quivering, dependant meaning of their own, with roots which do clinching? The Germans have a word versiegen, used have such a meaning. Or, finally, words may be for the gradual diminution and final stopping of any holophrastic by way of inflection. The Sanscrit, He-liquid, which previously flowed freely, as the stream of brew, Latin and Greek verbs and declensions afford a well. The syllable ver indicates the gradualness of numberless striking instances of all these classes. It is the cessation of flowing, which will and must lead to sufficient to glance at a single paradigma in a Grammar final entire cessation. It will be easily seen with what of any of these idioms to be struck with the complex energy this word may be used either directly and posiof ideas, which they have it in their power to express tively, or metaphorically-whether applied to faculties, by single words, modifying the meaning of the root in powers, eloquence, affections, or the energy of nations; a variety of ways by adding to it the ideas of time, and that it can be used in a thousand cases where our activity or passiveness, desire (as the Greek optative drying up is inadmissible. Indeed this latter word does), number, whether one, many or two act (as by never expresses exactly the German versiegen, though the Greek and Sanscrit dualis), of praying (as the we are obliged to use it as a corresponding term. Sanscrit precative does), of ordering (by the impera-Those nations which have distinct words for the differtive), of intensity (as by the Hebrew Piel or the Sans-ent kinds of love, e. g. for parental, filial, erotic, uncrit potentialis), of reciprocity, reflectiveness, of the happy, happy, passionate love, and the love of animals condition of the action itself, whether it has been for their offspring, can speak, sing or write far more brought to an entire end, or not, whether it had come energetically and eloquently of love than others, who to a conclusion at the time we speak or not, whether are obliged to use the same word for the love of God