presented (Fig. 155) with a delineation of three kinds of Fuci.* a, is Fucus nodosus, (knobbed fucus;) this has. forked fronds. The knobs which appear in the fronds are airbladders, which render it peculiarly buoyant

upon the water. This is often more than six feet long. b, Fucus vesiculosus, (bladder fucus ;) here the air-bladders are mostly axillary, and at the sides of the midrib. It varies in length from one to four feet. On account of its mucilaginous property it forms a good manure; in some of the countries of Lapland it is boiled with meal, and given for food to cattle. c, Fucus serratus; this has a beautiful serrate frond.

The Fuci,† on burning, afford an impure soda, called kelp.

Order Lichenes, or LICHENS.

The 5th Order contains the LICHENS; these are various in texture, form, and colour; they are leathery, woody, leaf-like, white, yellow, green, and black. When wet, they often appear like green herbage; some are seen on stones, or old fences and buildings; others with strong, green filaments, are suspended from branches of trees, and improperly called mosses. The fruit of the Lichen consists of saucer-like bodies, called apothecia, in which the seeds are contained; this may be seen in the following delineation. Fig. 156, a, represents

a

a lichen, of a leaflike appearance; here the apothecia imbedded in the leaves are very apparent. b, is a lichen resembling a drinkingglass. c, is the rein-deer moss, furnishing almost the sole food of

Fig. 156. that useful ani

mal, so important

to the existence of the Laplander. In the middle of Europe it grows only to the height of two or three inches; but in Lapland it sometimes attains to the height of one foot and a half.

Many of the lichens are useful on account of their colouring matter. Litmus, which is so common as a chemical test for acids and alkalies, is obtained from a species of white lichen, called Orchal, or Archil, this is also used for giving a crimson colour to wool and silk. The powder called cudbear, used for dying purple, is obtained from

*See also Appendix, Plate viii. Fig. 8, 9, 10, 11.

+ I'uci is the plural of Fucus.

1 hree kinds of Fuci-Kelp-Lichens-Explain Fig. 156-Uses of the lichens.

a lichen. The order Lichen has sometimes been included under one genus called Lichen, and placed in the order Alga.

Order Fungi, or MUSHROOMS.

The 6th Order contains the Mushrooms, or fungus plants; these never exhibit any appearance of green herbage; they are generally corky, fleshy, or mould-like, varying much in form and colour. The fruit of some is external, of others internal. They are often of very quick growth and short duration. The genus Agaricus, which contains the common eatable mushroom, has a convex, scaly, white head, called a pileus; this is supported on a stalk called a stipe. On the under surface of the pileus, or cup, are seen many flesh-coloured membranes called gills. These gills, in the young state of the mushroom, are concealed by a wrapper called a volva, which is considered as a kind of calyx. As the mushroom becomes older, the volva bursts and remains upon the stipe, while the pileus, released from its confinement, extends upwards and exhibits an uneven appearance upon its edge, caused by its separation from the volva.

Fig. 157 represents the most important parts of the mushroom; a, the gills running from the stipe to the circumference, under the pileus; b, a young mushroom, with the pileus of a globular form, and not separated from the volva; c, the volva, or wrapper, bursting and separating from the pileus so as to exhibit the gills beneath; d, part of the volva remaining upon the stipe in a circular form, and called an annulus, or ring. "If the mushroom be left for a time on a plate of glass, a powder will be found deposited; this is the seed,* or organic germ. That these are capable of germination, is evident to cultivators, who now form mushroom beds, by strewing the decayed plants on prepared beds of manure."t

A species of the genus Agaricus is common in Italy, and much valued for food; it is of a fine red or orange-colour; the ancient Romans esteemed it as a great luxury. The genus Boletus contains the touchwood, or spunk, which is sometimes used as tinder. The LYCOPERDON Contains the puff-ball.

The Cryptogamous plants are probably the least understood of all the visible works of nature. Philosophers have asserted that some of this race do not belong to the vegetable, but to the animal kingdom; having discovered insects in mushrooms, they say, like the sponge and the corals, these should be classed among animal productions. Few, however, at present, entertain this belief; and the fact of their having been raised from seed sprinkled on the earth, proves them to be of vegetable growth. A curious field of inquiry presents itself in the consideration of the difference between animal and vegetable life. This we shall hereafter partially examine; not, however, expecting to decide upon this subject, for in our researches

Order Mushrooms-Explain Fig. 157-Mushrooms capable of germination-Differ ent genera-Opinions of some philosophers respecting the Cryptogamous plants.

into the natural world we are continually led to exclaim, "the ways of the Almighty are unsearchable, and past finding out!"

After what has been remarked upon the difficulty of analyzing these plants, the young pupil will not be likely to expect too much from attempts to investigate them. It is well for mankind that there are philosophers, whom the enthusiasm of scientific pursuits will lead to spend years, even a whole life, in searching into the fructification of a moss, or mushroom, or in examining into the natural history of a gnat or spider;* as thus, discoveries are continually brought forward, which add to the general stock of knowledge. This is a kind of martyrdom in the cause of science, to which but few seem called by the powerful impulses of their own minds. Females, in particular, are not expected to enter into the recesses of the temple of science; it is but of late that they have been encouraged to approach even to its portals, and to venture a glance upon the mysteries within.

We have now completed our view of the vegetable world, according to the order in which the different tribes of plants have presented themselves. As we followed in the train of classification, we have endeavoured to notice the most conspicuous genera, and to trace their natural relations while considering their artificial arrangement. In many cases, departing from the plan of general remarks, we have traced the natural history of some one genus, believing this method more likely to make a permanent impression, than merely general views. In reading the history of nations, we often feel less interested in the fate of a whole people, than in that of some prominent individual; the mind presented with general ideas only, has no opportunity of forming images, which are but an aggregate of particulars. It is in natural as in civil history,-general remarks upon the beauty and utility of the vegetable world, or the curious structure of plants, make but slight impressions. But by contemplating the peculiarities of some one tribe, genus, or species, the mind seizes upon something definite, and reason, imagination, and feeling are easily awakened; thus the impression made is permanent. When you now look back upon the view you have taken of the vegetable world, and consider what impressions are most lively in your minds, you will probably find them to be respecting some peculiarities of individual plants. Of this tendency of the mind we should avail ourselves by connecting these particular impressions with facts which lead to general principles. Narrow indeed would be our mental vision, were it confined to single unconnected observations, laid up indiscriminately in the storehouse of thought; but our minds, not by our own will, but by a faculty received directly from our Creator, instinctively generalize and arrange their mass of single observations; and we, with scarcely an effort, perform that operation in the world of thought within us, which the great Linnæus effected in the vegetable kingdom.

I have been gravely assured by a naturalist of distinction, that the study of spiders is one of the most elegant and delightful of all pursuits.

Enthusiasm of some naturalists-View of classification completed-Tendency of the mind to generalize.

J

PART IV.

LECTURE XXXVIII.

THE FLOWERING SEASON OF PLANTS.

Vernal and Summer Flowers.

ON entering the fourth division of our course, we find before us an open field, freed in a great measure from the technicalities of science, and presenting a smooth and delightful path. Hitherto, we have been clearing our way through difficulties, and overcoming obstacles; first, we were obliged to learn to analyze plants according to the strict rules of botanical science; next to examine the organs of plants, anatomically and physiologically; we then investigated the principles of classification, as exhibited both in the natural and artificial methods, and followed the arrangements of plants as presented in these different methods.

The language of Botany is now familiar to the diligent student, who can enjoy the pleasant reflection, that by his own industry and application, he has elevated his mind to that state, in which it may, with little further effort, enjoy the pleasant views of the vegetable kingdom which now present themselves. Thus, the traveller, having toiled to gain some acclivity, looks complacently around, enjoying the beautiful view before him in proportion to the efforts made to attain it.

We will now suppose the dreary season of winter yielding to the gentle influences of spring, and organized nature awakening to new life and beauty ;-for animals, no less than plants, seem vivified and quickened by the returning warmth of this delightful season. How many wandering through life, "with brute, unconscious gaze," have never made the inquiry, "what causes Spring?" With the greater part of mankind the ordinary phenomena of nature excite no interest; it is only when something unexpected occurs, that they think, either of first or second causes. But it should be the main object of education to teach youth to reflect, to seek the connexion between cause and effect; and especially, to look through second causes to the Great Being who is the First Cause of all—“himself uncaused.”

But to return to the question, "what causes Spring?" or to state it in another form, by what means does the Almighty produce the changes which this season presents? To answer this, we must refer to astronomical geography, which, pointing out the course of the sun, shows us, that having journeyed to his utmost southern boundary, he returns, crosses the equator, and with rapid strides advances towards the northern hemisphere, beaming more directly upon us, and increasing the temperature of the atmosphere; to chemistry we owe our knowledge of the effects of caloric on bodies; physiological botany shows us the sap or vegetable blood expanding by the influence of caloric, and every exhaling and inhaling organ of the plant commencing operations under the same powerful influence. The earth, released from the icy bonds of frost, turns kindly to the mute, but living children of her bosom, and imparts the maternal nourishment, which, rushing through every fibre of the vegetable being, invigorates it with health and strength.

Remarks introductory to the fourth part-What causes spring?

From the first appearance of vegetation in the spring, until the commencement of winter, nature presents an ever varying scene. The phenomenon of the flowering of plants,* is, in many respects similar to that of the putting forth of leaves; in both, the same causes either hasten or retard this period. The putting forth of leaves, and the blossoming of flowers, differ, however, in one circumstance; the leaves begin by the upper leaf-buds; the flowers by the lower flowerbuds; stipes, panicles, and thyrses, begin to blossom gradually from the base to the summit, cymes and umbels blossom from the outside to the centre.

In plants of the north, transported to the south, the period of the putting forth of leaves, and blossoming, is hastened; in those of the south, carried to the north, it is retarded. Even in their native soil, this period varies in some degree in different seasons. With greater warmth of temperature, we have an earlier appearance of vegetation; yet in general this variation is so slight, that botanists are able, by observation, to fix with a sufficient degree of accuracy, the time of the flowering of plants in particular latitudes and climates.

The progress of vegetation varying little from latitude 40° to 43° north, the remarks we make on this subject may apply to that region of country extending south to the mouth of the Hudson, north to the mouth of the Mohawk, eastward to the Atlantic, and westward to the Pacific Ocean.

In Ohio, and the western part of New York, the climate, on account of the influence of the lakes, and the cold, eastern winds from the Atlantic being broken by ranges of mountains, is milder, and vegetation is somewhat earlier than in New England' in the same latitude.

In some cases, a plant puts forth leaves and blossoms at the same time; but usually, the leaves appear before the flowers, probably having a greater force to draw up the sap than the flowers, in which it rises by slow degrees. We see little appearance of vegetable life as early as March; sometimes snow covers the ground nearly, or quite through the month; but if we examine the trees and shrubs, even then, we may perceive, by the swelling of their buds, that they have already felt the vivifying influence of heat, and that a little increase of temperature will cause the embryo flower, or leaf, to burst its prison and come forth.

Vernal Flowers.

In April, the leaves of trees and shrubs begin to put forth; a few flowers show themselves, amid the damp, chilly atmosphere with which they are surrounded. Among the most interesting of these harbingers of spring is the HEPATICA triloba, or liver-leaf; a lowly, modest flower of a pale blue colour, with beautifully formed, threelobed leaves.

The low anemone, (ANEMONE nemorosa,)‡ with its pale blossoms, is found in shady woods and damp pastures. The bright yellow flowers of the colt's-foot (Tusilago) brave the cold winds of early spring, while the reluctant leaves wait for warmer breezes.

† Foliation.

*This is called florescentia. This little flower I have seen raising its head amid surrounding snows, on the banks of the Poesten-kiln, a streamlet which flows into the Hudson, near Troy.

Changes in veg tation-Putting forth of leaves and blossoming of flowers agree in some respects, differ in others-Plants of the north transplanted to the south, and the reverse-Remarks on the progress of vegetation; to what extent of country applying-Why do the leaves usually appear before the flowers ?-Vegetation in March -Flowers of April.